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Posted to commits@cassandra.apache.org by mc...@apache.org on 2021/09/21 07:54:34 UTC
[cassandra-website] branch asf-staging updated: generated for
CASSANDRA-16964: Added September 2021 blog post on Reaper repairs
This is an automated email from the ASF dual-hosted git repository.
mck pushed a commit to branch asf-staging
in repository https://gitbox.apache.org/repos/asf/cassandra-website.git
The following commit(s) were added to refs/heads/asf-staging by this push:
new f97916b generated for CASSANDRA-16964: Added September 2021 blog post on Reaper repairs
f97916b is described below
commit f97916bebd8dee906005124b3057b94d57202be9
Author: mck <mc...@apache.org>
AuthorDate: Tue Sep 21 08:54:07 2021 +0100
generated for CASSANDRA-16964: Added September 2021 blog post on Reaper repairs
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+++ b/content/_/blog.html
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<div class="content">
<div class="openblock card-header">
<div class="content">
-<h3 id="cassandra-on-kubernetes-a-beginners-guide" class="discrete">Cassandra on Kubernetes: A Beginner’s Guide</h3>
+<h3 id="reaper-anti-entropy-repair-made-easy" class="discrete">Reaper: Anti-entropy Repair Made Easy</h3>
<h4 id="august-27-2021" class="discrete">August 27, 2021</h4>
</div>
</div>
<div class="openblock card-content">
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Originally designed by Spotify, Reaper is an open source written in Java to schedule and orchestrate repairs of Apache Cassandra clusters. It helps make repairs as safe and reliable as possible, and with the recent release of Apache Cassandra 4.0 that also includes incremental repairs.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="openblock card-btn card-btn--blog">
+<div class="content">
+<div class="paragraph btn btn--alt">
+<p><a href="blog/Reaper-Anti-entropy-Repair-Made-Easy.html" class="page">Read More</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="openblock card shadow relative test">
+<div class="content">
+<div class="openblock card-header">
+<div class="content">
+<h3 id="cassandra-on-kubernetes-a-beginners-guide" class="discrete">Cassandra on Kubernetes: A Beginner’s Guide</h3>
+<h4 id="august-27-2021-2" class="discrete">August 27, 2021</h4>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="openblock card-content">
+<div class="content">
+<div class="paragraph">
<p>Managing infrastructure has been standardizing around Kubernetes. Learn how the Apache Cassandra community has been developing solutions to simplify deployment and management of data with Cassandra operators and open source distributions for Kubernetes.</p>
</div>
<div class="openblock card-btn card-btn--blog">
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+ <h1>Reaper: Anti-entropy Repair Made Easy</h1>
+ <h3>September 14, 2021 | Alexander Dejanovski</h3>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ <div id="blog-post" class="flex-center py-large arrow">
+ <div class="blog-breadcrumb mb-medium">
+ <div class="inner inner--narrow">
+ <a href="/_/blog.html">« Back to the Apache Cassandra Blog</a>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ <div class="post-content">
+ <div class="inner inner--narrow">
+ <div id="preamble">
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Reaper is an open source tool written in Java and built with Dropwizard to schedule and orchestrate repairs of Apache Cassandra clusters. It was originally <a href="https://www.slideshare.net/planetcassandra/spotify-automating-cassandra-repairs" target="_blank" rel="noopener">designed and open-sourced by Spotify</a> in an attempt to automate repairs while applying best practices from their solid production experience.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="repair-challenges"><a class="anchor" href="#repair-challenges"></a>Repair Challenges</h3>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Anti-entropy repair is traditionally performed using the nodetool repair command. It can be performed in two ways, full or incremental, and configured to repair various token ranges: all, primary range, or sub-range. Add to this different validation compaction orchestration settings (sequential, parallel, and data center aware), the fact that anti-compaction may trigger in some cases, and you’re down a rabbit hole of complexity. All this for an operation that is mandatory and sh [...]
+In the 1.x/2.x days of Cassandra (and probably after that), some operators simply gave up on repairing their clusters due to the difficulties involved in completing the operation successfully without impacting SLAs.
+The main problems encountered during repairs were:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>A high number of pending compactions and SSTables on disk</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Repairs taking longer than the tombstones GC grace period</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>High cluster load due to repair pressure</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Blocked/never-ending repairs</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>A repair that isn’t resumable in case of failure</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>vnodes made the operation very long and challenging to perform</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="sect3">
+<h4 id="reaper-performs-safe-repairs"><a class="anchor" href="#reaper-performs-safe-repairs"></a>Reaper performs safe repairs</h4>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Reaper was built to address those issues and make repairs as safe and reliable as possible. It splits the repair operations into evenly sized subranges and schedules them so that:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>All nodes are kept busy repairing small units of data if possible</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>A single segment is running on a node at once</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Segments lasting too long are terminated and re-scheduled</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Failed segments get replayed in case of a transient failure</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Pending compactions are monitored to pause segment scheduling, preventing overload</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Repairs can be paused</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>The tool also supports incremental repair, which should be safely usable starting with Cassandra 4.0. Since Cassandra 3.0, Reaper can create segments with several token ranges to reduce the overhead of vnodes on repairs. Such ranges will be repaired in a single job by Cassandra as segments will only contain ranges that are replicated on the same set of nodes.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="reaper-features"><a class="anchor" href="#reaper-features"></a>Reaper Features</h3>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Reaper ships with a <a href="http://cassandra-reaper.io/docs/api/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">REST API</a>, a command-line tool (spreaper) and a Web UI:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="imageblock">
+<div class="content">
+<img src="../_images/blog/blog-post-reaper-anti-entropy-repair/image5.png" alt="cluster view">
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>It collects and displays runtime Cassandra metrics, running compactions and ongoing streaming sessions:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="imageblock">
+<div class="content">
+<img src="../_images/blog/blog-post-reaper-anti-entropy-repair/image6.png" alt="node metrics">
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Reaper ships with a scheduler for recurring repairs but can also perform on-demand one-off repairs:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="imageblock">
+<div class="content">
+<img src="../_images/blog/blog-post-reaper-anti-entropy-repair/image7.png" alt="scheduler">
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="imageblock">
+<div class="content">
+<img src="../_images/blog/blog-post-reaper-anti-entropy-repair/image4.png" alt="repair">
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>It’s easy to install as a <a href="http://cassandra-reaper.io/docs/download/install/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">tarball</a>, a <a href="https://hub.docker.com/r/thelastpickle/cassandra-reaper/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Docker container</a>, or <a href="https://cloudsmith.io/%7Ethelastpickle/repos/reaper/packages/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">deb/rpm packages</a> and can be deployed in various ways to accommodate your <a href="http://cassandra-reaper.io/docs/usage/m [...]
+</div>
+<div class="imageblock">
+<div class="content">
+<img src="../_images/blog/blog-post-reaper-anti-entropy-repair/image8.png" alt="singlereaper multidc">
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="imageblock">
+<div class="content">
+<img src="../_images/blog/blog-post-reaper-anti-entropy-repair/image3.png" alt="multireaper multidc">
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="imageblock">
+<div class="content">
+<img src="../_images/blog/blog-post-reaper-anti-entropy-repair/image2.png" alt="ha reaper setup">
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>If JMX is restricted to local access, Reaper can even be deployed as a sidecar:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="imageblock">
+<div class="content">
+<img src="../_images/blog/blog-post-reaper-anti-entropy-repair/image1.png" alt="reaper sidecar">
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Reaper also can listen and display live Cassandra’s emitted Diagnostic Events.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>In Cassandra 4.0 internal system “diagnostic events” have become available via the work done in <a href="https://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/CASSANDRA-12944" target="_blank" rel="noopener">CASSANDRA-12944</a>. These allow us to observe internal Cassandra events, for example, in unit tests, and with external tools. These diagnostic events provide operational monitoring and troubleshooting beyond logs and metrics.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Reaper can use Postgres and Cassandra itself as a storage backend for its data and can repair all Cassandra versions since 1.2 up to the latest 4.0.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>To make Reaper more efficient, segment orchestration was recently revamped and modernized. It opened for a long-awaited feature: fully concurrent repairs for different keyspaces and tables.
+These changes also introduced a long-awaited feature by allowing fully concurrent repairs for different keyspaces/tables.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>You can find more details on these changes in the <a href="https://thelastpickle.com/blog/2021/02/22/reaper-for-apache-cassandra-2-2-release.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">2.2 release blog post</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Note: the latest release is <a href="https://github.com/thelastpickle/cassandra-reaper/releases/tag/2.3.1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">2.3.1</a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="eager-to-try-reaper"><a class="anchor" href="#eager-to-try-reaper"></a>Eager to try Reaper?</h3>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Head over to the <a href="http://cassandra-reaper.io/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cassandra-reaper.io</a> website, which contains all information you’ll need to get started, install Reaper and stop worrying about repairs!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>This article by Alexander Dejanovski was previously published on <a href="https://jaxenter.com/reaper-anti-entropy-174878.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">JAXEnter.com</a>.</p>
+</div>
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+<h1 class="page">Dynamo</h1>
+<div id="preamble">
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Apache Cassandra relies on a number of techniques from Amazon’s
+<a href="http://courses.cse.tamu.edu/caverlee/csce438/readings/dynamo-paper.pdf">Dynamo</a>
+distributed storage key-value system. Each node in the Dynamo system has
+three main components:</p>
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+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>Request coordination over a partitioned dataset</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Ring membership and failure detection</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>A local persistence (storage) engine</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra primarily draws from the first two clustering components,
+while using a storage engine based on a Log Structured Merge Tree
+(<a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.44.2782&rep=rep1&type=pdf">LSM</a>).
+In particular, Cassandra relies on Dynamo style:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>Dataset partitioning using consistent hashing</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Multi-master replication using versioned data and tunable consistency</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Distributed cluster membership and failure detection via a gossip
+protocol</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Incremental scale-out on commodity hardware</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra was designed this way to meet large-scale (PiB+)
+business-critical storage requirements. In particular, as applications
+demanded full global replication of petabyte scale datasets along with
+always available low-latency reads and writes, it became imperative to
+design a new kind of database model as the relational database systems
+of the time struggled to meet the new requirements of global scale
+applications.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="dataset-partitioning-consistent-hashing"><a class="anchor" href="#dataset-partitioning-consistent-hashing"></a>Dataset Partitioning: Consistent Hashing</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra achieves horizontal scalability by
+<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_(database)">partitioning</a> all
+data stored in the system using a hash function. Each partition is
+replicated to multiple physical nodes, often across failure domains such
+as racks and even datacenters. As every replica can independently accept
+mutations to every key that it owns, every key must be versioned. Unlike
+in the original Dynamo paper where deterministic versions and vector
+clocks were used to reconcile concurrent updates to a key, Cassandra
+uses a simpler last write wins model where every mutation is timestamped
+(including deletes) and then the latest version of data is the "winning"
+value. Formally speaking, Cassandra uses a Last-Write-Wins Element-Set
+conflict-free replicated data type for each CQL row, or
+<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict-free_replicated_data_type" class="bare">en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict-free_replicated_data_type</a> LWW-Element-Set_(Last-Write-Wins-Element-Set)[LWW-Element-Set
+CRDT], to resolve conflicting mutations on replica sets.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="consistent-hashing-using-a-token-ring"><a class="anchor" href="#consistent-hashing-using-a-token-ring"></a>Consistent Hashing using a Token Ring</h3>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra partitions data over storage nodes using a special form of
+hashing called
+<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistent_hashing">consistent hashing</a>. In
+naive data hashing, you typically allocate keys to buckets by taking a
+hash of the key modulo the number of buckets. For example, if you want
+to distribute data to 100 nodes using naive hashing you might assign
+every node to a bucket between 0 and 100, hash the input key modulo 100,
+and store the data on the associated bucket. In this naive scheme,
+however, adding a single node might invalidate almost all of the
+mappings.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra instead maps every node to one or more tokens on a continuous
+hash ring, and defines ownership by hashing a key onto the ring and then
+"walking" the ring in one direction, similar to the
+<a href="https://pdos.csail.mit.edu/papers/chord:sigcomm01/chord_sigcomm.pdf">Chord</a>
+algorithm. The main difference of consistent hashing to naive data
+hashing is that when the number of nodes (buckets) to hash into changes,
+consistent hashing only has to move a small fraction of the keys.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>For example, if we have an eight node cluster with evenly spaced tokens,
+and a replication factor (RF) of 3, then to find the owning nodes for a
+key we first hash that key to generate a token (which is just the hash
+of the key), and then we "walk" the ring in a clockwise fashion until we
+encounter three distinct nodes, at which point we have found all the
+replicas of that key. This example of an eight node cluster with
+gRF=3 can be visualized as follows:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="imageblock">
+<div class="content">
+<img src="../_images/ring.svg" alt="image">
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>You can see that in a Dynamo like system, ranges of keys, also known as
+<strong>token ranges</strong>, map to the same physical set of nodes. In this example,
+all keys that fall in the token range excluding token 1 and including
+token 2 (grange(t1, t2]) are stored on nodes 2, 3 and 4.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="multiple-tokens-per-physical-node-vnodes"><a class="anchor" href="#multiple-tokens-per-physical-node-vnodes"></a>Multiple Tokens per Physical Node (vnodes)</h3>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Simple single token consistent hashing works well if you have many
+physical nodes to spread data over, but with evenly spaced tokens and a
+small number of physical nodes, incremental scaling (adding just a few
+nodes of capacity) is difficult because there are no token selections
+for new nodes that can leave the ring balanced. Cassandra seeks to avoid
+token imbalance because uneven token ranges lead to uneven request load.
+For example, in the previous example there is no way to add a ninth
+token without causing imbalance; instead we would have to insert <code>8</code>
+tokens in the midpoints of the existing ranges.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>The Dynamo paper advocates for the use of "virtual nodes" to solve this
+imbalance problem. Virtual nodes solve the problem by assigning multiple
+tokens in the token ring to each physical node. By allowing a single
+physical node to take multiple positions in the ring, we can make small
+clusters look larger and therefore even with a single physical node
+addition we can make it look like we added many more nodes, effectively
+taking many smaller pieces of data from more ring neighbors when we add
+even a single node.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra introduces some nomenclature to handle these concepts:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p><strong>Token</strong>: A single position on the dynamo style hash
+ring.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p><strong>Endpoint</strong>: A single physical IP and port on the network.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p><strong>Host ID</strong>: A unique identifier for a single "physical" node, usually
+present at one gEndpoint and containing one or more
+gTokens.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p><strong>Virtual Node</strong> (or <strong>vnode</strong>): A gToken on the hash ring
+owned by the same physical node, one with the same gHost
+ID.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>The mapping of <strong>Tokens</strong> to <strong>Endpoints</strong> gives rise to the <strong>Token Map</strong>
+where Cassandra keeps track of what ring positions map to which physical
+endpoints. For example, in the following figure we can represent an
+eight node cluster using only four physical nodes by assigning two
+tokens to every node:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="imageblock">
+<div class="content">
+<img src="../_images/vnodes.svg" alt="image">
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Multiple tokens per physical node provide the following benefits:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="olist arabic">
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li>
+<p>When a new node is added it accepts approximately equal amounts of
+data from other nodes in the ring, resulting in equal distribution of
+data across the cluster.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>When a node is decommissioned, it loses data roughly equally to other
+members of the ring, again keeping equal distribution of data across the
+cluster.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>If a node becomes unavailable, query load (especially token aware
+query load), is evenly distributed across many other nodes.</p>
+</li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Multiple tokens, however, can also have disadvantages:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="olist arabic">
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li>
+<p>Every token introduces up to <code>2 * (RF - 1)</code> additional neighbors on
+the token ring, which means that there are more combinations of node
+failures where we lose availability for a portion of the token ring. The
+more tokens you have,
+<a href="https://jolynch.github.io/pdf/cassandra-availability-virtual.pdf">the
+higher the probability of an outage</a>.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Cluster-wide maintenance operations are often slowed. For example, as
+the number of tokens per node is increased, the number of discrete
+repair operations the cluster must do also increases.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Performance of operations that span token ranges could be affected.</p>
+</li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Note that in Cassandra <code>2.x</code>, the only token allocation algorithm
+available was picking random tokens, which meant that to keep balance
+the default number of tokens per node had to be quite high, at <code>256</code>.
+This had the effect of coupling many physical endpoints together,
+increasing the risk of unavailability. That is why in <code>3.x +</code> the new
+deterministic token allocator was added which intelligently picks tokens
+such that the ring is optimally balanced while requiring a much lower
+number of tokens per physical node.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="multi-master-replication-versioned-data-and-tunable-consistency"><a class="anchor" href="#multi-master-replication-versioned-data-and-tunable-consistency"></a>Multi-master Replication: Versioned Data and Tunable Consistency</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra replicates every partition of data to many nodes across the
+cluster to maintain high availability and durability. When a mutation
+occurs, the coordinator hashes the partition key to determine the token
+range the data belongs to and then replicates the mutation to the
+replicas of that data according to the
+<code>Replication Strategy</code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>All replication strategies have the notion of a <strong>replication factor</strong>
+(<code>RF</code>), which indicates to Cassandra how many copies of the partition
+should exist. For example with a <code>RF=3</code> keyspace, the data will be
+written to three distinct <strong>replicas</strong>. Replicas are always chosen such
+that they are distinct physical nodes which is achieved by skipping
+virtual nodes if needed. Replication strategies may also choose to skip
+nodes present in the same failure domain such as racks or datacenters so
+that Cassandra clusters can tolerate failures of whole racks and even
+datacenters of nodes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="replication-strategy"><a class="anchor" href="#replication-strategy"></a>Replication Strategy</h3>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra supports pluggable <strong>replication strategies</strong>, which determine
+which physical nodes act as replicas for a given token range. Every
+keyspace of data has its own replication strategy. All production
+deployments should use the <code>NetworkTopologyStrategy</code> while the
+<code>SimpleStrategy</code> replication strategy is useful only for testing
+clusters where you do not yet know the datacenter layout of the cluster.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="sect3">
+<h4 id="network-topology-strategy"><a class="anchor" href="#network-topology-strategy"></a><code>NetworkTopologyStrategy</code></h4>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><code>NetworkTopologyStrategy</code> requires a specified replication factor
+for each datacenter in the cluster. Even if your cluster only uses a
+single datacenter, <code>NetworkTopologyStrategy</code> is recommended over
+<code>SimpleStrategy</code> to make it easier to add new physical or virtual
+datacenters to the cluster later, if required.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>In addition to allowing the replication factor to be specified
+individually by datacenter, <code>NetworkTopologyStrategy</code> also attempts to
+choose replicas within a datacenter from different racks as specified by
+the <code>Snitch</code>. If the number of racks is greater than or equal
+to the replication factor for the datacenter, each replica is guaranteed
+to be chosen from a different rack. Otherwise, each rack will hold at
+least one replica, but some racks may hold more than one. Note that this
+rack-aware behavior has some potentially
+<a href="https://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/CASSANDRA-3810">surprising
+implications</a>. For example, if there are not an even number of nodes in
+each rack, the data load on the smallest rack may be much higher.
+Similarly, if a single node is bootstrapped into a brand new rack, it
+will be considered a replica for the entire ring. For this reason, many
+operators choose to configure all nodes in a single availability zone or
+similar failure domain as a single "rack".</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect3">
+<h4 id="simple-strategy"><a class="anchor" href="#simple-strategy"></a><code>SimpleStrategy</code></h4>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><code>SimpleStrategy</code> allows a single integer <code>replication_factor</code> to be
+defined. This determines the number of nodes that should contain a copy
+of each row. For example, if <code>replication_factor</code> is 3, then three
+different nodes should store a copy of each row.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><code>SimpleStrategy</code> treats all nodes identically, ignoring any configured
+datacenters or racks. To determine the replicas for a token range,
+Cassandra iterates through the tokens in the ring, starting with the
+token range of interest. For each token, it checks whether the owning
+node has been added to the set of replicas, and if it has not, it is
+added to the set. This process continues until <code>replication_factor</code>
+distinct nodes have been added to the set of replicas.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect3">
+<h4 id="transient-replication"><a class="anchor" href="#transient-replication"></a>Transient Replication</h4>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Transient replication is an experimental feature in Cassandra 4.0 not
+present in the original Dynamo paper. This feature allows configuration of a
+subset of replicas to replicate only data that hasn’t been incrementally
+repaired. This configuration decouples data redundancy from availability.
+For instance, if you have a keyspace replicated at RF=3, and alter it to
+RF=5 with two transient replicas, you go from tolerating one
+failed replica to tolerating two, without corresponding
+increase in storage usage. Now, three nodes will replicate all
+the data for a given token range, and the other two will only replicate
+data that hasn’t been incrementally repaired.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>To use transient replication, first enable the option in
+<code>cassandra.yaml</code>. Once enabled, both <code>SimpleStrategy</code> and
+<code>NetworkTopologyStrategy</code> can be configured to transiently replicate
+data. Configure it by specifying replication factor as
+<code><total_replicas>/<transient_replicas</code> Both <code>SimpleStrategy</code> and
+<code>NetworkTopologyStrategy</code> support configuring transient replication.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Transiently replicated keyspaces only support tables created with
+<code>read_repair</code> set to <code>NONE</code>; monotonic reads are not currently
+supported. You also can’t use <code>LWT</code>, logged batches, or counters in 4.0.
+You will possibly never be able to use materialized views with
+transiently replicated keyspaces and probably never be able to use
+secondary indices with them.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Transient replication is an experimental feature that is not ready
+for production use. The expected audience is experienced users of
+Cassandra capable of fully validating a deployment of their particular
+application. That means being able check that operations like reads,
+writes, decommission, remove, rebuild, repair, and replace all work with
+your queries, data, configuration, operational practices, and
+availability requirements.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Anticipated additional features in <code>4.next</code> are support for monotonic reads with
+transient replication, as well as LWT, logged batches, and counters.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="data-versioning"><a class="anchor" href="#data-versioning"></a>Data Versioning</h3>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra uses mutation timestamp versioning to guarantee eventual
+consistency of data. Specifically all mutations that enter the system do
+so with a timestamp provided either from a client clock or, absent a
+client provided timestamp, from the coordinator node’s clock. Updates
+resolve according to the conflict resolution rule of last write wins.
+Cassandra’s correctness does depend on these clocks, so make sure a
+proper time synchronization process is running such as NTP.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra applies separate mutation timestamps to every column of every
+row within a CQL partition. Rows are guaranteed to be unique by primary
+key, and each column in a row resolve concurrent mutations according to
+last-write-wins conflict resolution. This means that updates to
+different primary keys within a partition can actually resolve without
+conflict! Furthermore the CQL collection types such as maps and sets use
+this same conflict free mechanism, meaning that concurrent updates to
+maps and sets are guaranteed to resolve as well.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="sect3">
+<h4 id="replica-synchronization"><a class="anchor" href="#replica-synchronization"></a>Replica Synchronization</h4>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>As replicas in Cassandra can accept mutations independently, it is
+possible for some replicas to have newer data than others. Cassandra has
+many best-effort techniques to drive convergence of replicas including
+<code>Replica read repair <read-repair></code> in the read path and
+<code>Hinted handoff <hints></code> in the write path.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>These techniques are only best-effort, however, and to guarantee
+eventual consistency Cassandra implements <code>anti-entropy
+repair <repair></code> where replicas calculate hierarchical hash-trees over
+their datasets called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merkle_tree">Merkle
+trees</a> that can then be compared across replicas to identify mismatched
+data. Like the original Dynamo paper Cassandra supports full repairs
+where replicas hash their entire dataset, create Merkle trees, send them
+to each other and sync any ranges that don’t match.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Unlike the original Dynamo paper, Cassandra also implements sub-range
+repair and incremental repair. Sub-range repair allows Cassandra to
+increase the resolution of the hash trees (potentially down to the
+single partition level) by creating a larger number of trees that span
+only a portion of the data range. Incremental repair allows Cassandra to
+only repair the partitions that have changed since the last repair.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="tunable-consistency"><a class="anchor" href="#tunable-consistency"></a>Tunable Consistency</h3>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra supports a per-operation tradeoff between consistency and
+availability through <strong>Consistency Levels</strong>. Cassandra’s consistency
+levels are a version of Dynamo’s <code>R + W > N</code> consistency mechanism where
+operators could configure the number of nodes that must participate in
+reads (<code>R</code>) and writes (<code>W</code>) to be larger than the replication factor
+(<code>N</code>). In Cassandra, you instead choose from a menu of common
+consistency levels which allow the operator to pick <code>R</code> and <code>W</code> behavior
+without knowing the replication factor. Generally writes will be visible
+to subsequent reads when the read consistency level contains enough
+nodes to guarantee a quorum intersection with the write consistency
+level.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>The following consistency levels are available:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="dlist">
+<dl>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>ONE</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>Only a single replica must respond.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>TWO</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>Two replicas must respond.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>THREE</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>Three replicas must respond.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>QUORUM</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>A majority (n/2 + 1) of the replicas must respond.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>ALL</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>All of the replicas must respond.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>LOCAL_QUORUM</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>A majority of the replicas in the local datacenter (whichever
+datacenter the coordinator is in) must respond.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>EACH_QUORUM</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>A majority of the replicas in each datacenter must respond.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>LOCAL_ONE</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>Only a single replica must respond. In a multi-datacenter cluster,
+this also gaurantees that read requests are not sent to replicas in a
+remote datacenter.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>ANY</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>A single replica may respond, or the coordinator may store a hint. If
+a hint is stored, the coordinator will later attempt to replay the
+hint and deliver the mutation to the replicas. This consistency level
+is only accepted for write operations.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Write operations <strong>are always sent to all replicas</strong>, regardless of
+consistency level. The consistency level simply controls how many
+responses the coordinator waits for before responding to the client.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>For read operations, the coordinator generally only issues read commands
+to enough replicas to satisfy the consistency level. The one exception
+to this is when speculative retry may issue a redundant read request to
+an extra replica if the original replicas have not responded within a
+specified time window.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="sect3">
+<h4 id="picking-consistency-levels"><a class="anchor" href="#picking-consistency-levels"></a>Picking Consistency Levels</h4>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>It is common to pick read and write consistency levels such that the
+replica sets overlap, resulting in all acknowledged writes being visible
+to subsequent reads. This is typically expressed in the same terms
+Dynamo does, in that <code>W + R > RF</code>, where <code>W</code> is the write consistency
+level, <code>R</code> is the read consistency level, and <code>RF</code> is the replication
+factor. For example, if <code>RF = 3</code>, a <code>QUORUM</code> request will require
+responses from at least <code>2/3</code> replicas. If <code>QUORUM</code> is used for both
+writes and reads, at least one of the replicas is guaranteed to
+participate in <em>both</em> the write and the read request, which in turn
+guarantees that the quorums will overlap and the write will be visible
+to the read.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>In a multi-datacenter environment, <code>LOCAL_QUORUM</code> can be used to provide
+a weaker but still useful guarantee: reads are guaranteed to see the
+latest write from within the same datacenter. This is often sufficient
+as clients homed to a single datacenter will read their own writes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>If this type of strong consistency isn’t required, lower consistency
+levels like <code>LOCAL_ONE</code> or <code>ONE</code> may be used to improve throughput,
+latency, and availability. With replication spanning multiple
+datacenters, <code>LOCAL_ONE</code> is typically less available than <code>ONE</code> but is
+faster as a rule. Indeed <code>ONE</code> will succeed if a single replica is
+available in any datacenter.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="distributed-cluster-membership-and-failure-detection"><a class="anchor" href="#distributed-cluster-membership-and-failure-detection"></a>Distributed Cluster Membership and Failure Detection</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>The replication protocols and dataset partitioning rely on knowing which
+nodes are alive and dead in the cluster so that write and read
+operations can be optimally routed. In Cassandra liveness information is
+shared in a distributed fashion through a failure detection mechanism
+based on a gossip protocol.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="gossip"><a class="anchor" href="#gossip"></a>Gossip</h3>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Gossip is how Cassandra propagates basic cluster bootstrapping
+information such as endpoint membership and internode network protocol
+versions. In Cassandra’s gossip system, nodes exchange state information
+not only about themselves but also about other nodes they know about.
+This information is versioned with a vector clock of
+<code>(generation, version)</code> tuples, where the generation is a monotonic
+timestamp and version is a logical clock the increments roughly every
+second. These logical clocks allow Cassandra gossip to ignore old
+versions of cluster state just by inspecting the logical clocks
+presented with gossip messages.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Every node in the Cassandra cluster runs the gossip task independently
+and periodically. Every second, every node in the cluster:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="olist arabic">
+<ol class="arabic">
+<li>
+<p>Updates the local node’s heartbeat state (the version) and constructs
+the node’s local view of the cluster gossip endpoint state.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Picks a random other node in the cluster to exchange gossip endpoint
+state with.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Probabilistically attempts to gossip with any unreachable nodes (if
+one exists)</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Gossips with a seed node if that didn’t happen in step 2.</p>
+</li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>When an operator first bootstraps a Cassandra cluster they designate
+certain nodes as seed nodes. Any node can be a seed node and the only
+difference between seed and non-seed nodes is seed nodes are allowed to
+bootstrap into the ring without seeing any other seed nodes.
+Furthermore, once a cluster is bootstrapped, seed nodes become
+hotspots for gossip due to step 4 above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>As non-seed nodes must be able to contact at least one seed node in
+order to bootstrap into the cluster, it is common to include multiple
+seed nodes, often one for each rack or datacenter. Seed nodes are often
+chosen using existing off-the-shelf service discovery mechanisms.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonitionblock note">
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td class="icon">
+<i class="fa icon-note" title="Note"></i>
+</td>
+<td class="content">
+<div class="title">Note</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Nodes do not have to agree on the seed nodes, and indeed once a cluster
+is bootstrapped, newly launched nodes can be configured to use any
+existing nodes as seeds. The only advantage to picking the same nodes
+as seeds is it increases their usefullness as gossip hotspots.</p>
+</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Currently, gossip also propagates token metadata and schema
+<em>version</em> information. This information forms the control plane for
+scheduling data movements and schema pulls. For example, if a node sees
+a mismatch in schema version in gossip state, it will schedule a schema
+sync task with the other nodes. As token information propagates via
+gossip it is also the control plane for teaching nodes which endpoints
+own what data.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="ring-membership-and-failure-detection"><a class="anchor" href="#ring-membership-and-failure-detection"></a>Ring Membership and Failure Detection</h3>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Gossip forms the basis of ring membership, but the <strong>failure detector</strong>
+ultimately makes decisions about if nodes are <code>UP</code> or <code>DOWN</code>. Every node
+in Cassandra runs a variant of the
+<a href="https://www.computer.org/csdl/proceedings-article/srds/2004/22390066/12OmNvT2phv">Phi
+Accrual Failure Detector</a>, in which every node is constantly making an
+independent decision of if their peer nodes are available or not. This
+decision is primarily based on received heartbeat state. For example, if
+a node does not see an increasing heartbeat from a node for a certain
+amount of time, the failure detector "convicts" that node, at which
+point Cassandra will stop routing reads to it (writes will typically be
+written to hints). If/when the node starts heartbeating again, Cassandra
+will try to reach out and connect, and if it can open communication
+channels it will mark that node as available.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="admonitionblock note">
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td class="icon">
+<i class="fa icon-note" title="Note"></i>
+</td>
+<td class="content">
+<div class="title">Note</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><code>UP</code> and <code>DOWN</code> state are local node decisions and are not propagated with
+gossip. Heartbeat state is propagated with gossip, but nodes will not
+consider each other as <code>UP</code> until they can successfully message each
+other over an actual network channel.</p>
+</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra will never remove a node from gossip state without
+explicit instruction from an operator via a decommission operation or a
+new node bootstrapping with a <code>replace_address_first_boot</code> option. This
+choice is intentional to allow Cassandra nodes to temporarily fail
+without causing data to needlessly re-balance. This also helps to
+prevent simultaneous range movements, where multiple replicas of a token
+range are moving at the same time, which can violate monotonic
+consistency and can even cause data loss.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="incremental-scale-out-on-commodity-hardware"><a class="anchor" href="#incremental-scale-out-on-commodity-hardware"></a>Incremental Scale-out on Commodity Hardware</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra scales-out to meet the requirements of growth in data size and
+request rates. Scaling-out means adding additional nodes to the ring,
+and every additional node brings linear improvements in compute and
+storage. In contrast, scaling-up implies adding more capacity to the
+existing database nodes. Cassandra is also capable of scale-up, and in
+certain environments it may be preferable depending on the deployment.
+Cassandra gives operators the flexibility to chose either scale-out or
+scale-up.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>One key aspect of Dynamo that Cassandra follows is to attempt to run on
+commodity hardware, and many engineering choices are made under this
+assumption. For example, Cassandra assumes nodes can fail at any time,
+auto-tunes to make the best use of CPU and memory resources available
+and makes heavy use of advanced compression and caching techniques to
+get the most storage out of limited memory and storage capabilities.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="simple-query-model"><a class="anchor" href="#simple-query-model"></a>Simple Query Model</h3>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra, like Dynamo, chooses not to provide cross-partition
+transactions that are common in SQL Relational Database Management
+Systems (RDBMS). This both gives the programmer a simpler read and write
+API, and allows Cassandra to more easily scale horizontally since
+multi-partition transactions spanning multiple nodes are notoriously
+difficult to implement and typically very latent.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Instead, Cassanda chooses to offer fast, consistent, latency at any
+scale for single partition operations, allowing retrieval of entire
+partitions or only subsets of partitions based on primary key filters.
+Furthermore, Cassandra does support single partition compare and swap
+functionality via the lightweight transaction CQL API.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="simple-interface-for-storing-records"><a class="anchor" href="#simple-interface-for-storing-records"></a>Simple Interface for Storing Records</h3>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra, in a slight departure from Dynamo, chooses a storage
+interface that is more sophisticated then "simple key value" stores but
+significantly less complex than SQL relational data models. Cassandra
+presents a wide-column store interface, where partitions of data contain
+multiple rows, each of which contains a flexible set of individually
+typed columns. Every row is uniquely identified by the partition key and
+one or more clustering keys, and every row can have as many columns as
+needed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>This allows users to flexibly add new columns to existing datasets as
+new requirements surface. Schema changes involve only metadata changes
+and run fully concurrently with live workloads. Therefore, users can
+safely add columns to existing Cassandra databases while remaining
+confident that query performance will not degrade.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
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+ <ul>
+ <li class="crumb">Cassandra</li>
+ <li class="crumb"><a href="index.html">Architecture</a></li>
+ <li class="crumb"><a href="guarantees.html">Guarantees</a></li>
+ </ul>
+</nav>
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+ <ul>
+ <li class="tool edit"><a href="https://github.com/polandll/cassandra/edit/trunk/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/architecture/guarantees.adoc" title="Edit Page" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Edit</a></li>
+ </ul>
+</div>
+ </div>
+<article class="doc">
+<h1 class="page">Guarantees</h1>
+<div id="preamble">
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Apache Cassandra is a highly scalable and reliable database. Cassandra
+is used in web based applications that serve large number of clients and
+the quantity of data processed is web-scale (Petabyte) large. Cassandra
+makes some guarantees about its scalability, availability and
+reliability. To fully understand the inherent limitations of a storage
+system in an environment in which a certain level of network partition
+failure is to be expected and taken into account when designing the
+system it is important to first briefly introduce the CAP theorem.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="what-is-cap"><a class="anchor" href="#what-is-cap"></a>What is CAP?</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>According to the CAP theorem it is not possible for a distributed data
+store to provide more than two of the following guarantees
+simultaneously.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>Consistency: Consistency implies that every read receives the most
+recent write or errors out</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Availability: Availability implies that every request receives a
+response. It is not guaranteed that the response contains the most
+recent write or data.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Partition tolerance: Partition tolerance refers to the tolerance of a
+storage system to failure of a network partition. Even if some of the
+messages are dropped or delayed the system continues to operate.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>CAP theorem implies that when using a network partition, with the
+inherent risk of partition failure, one has to choose between
+consistency and availability and both cannot be guaranteed at the same
+time. CAP theorem is illustrated in Figure 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="imageblock">
+<div class="content">
+<img src="../_images/Figure_1_guarantees.jpg" alt="image">
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Figure 1. CAP Theorem</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>High availability is a priority in web based applications and to this
+objective Cassandra chooses Availability and Partition Tolerance from
+the CAP guarantees, compromising on data Consistency to some extent.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra makes the following guarantees.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>High Scalability</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>High Availability</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Durability</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Eventual Consistency of writes to a single table</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Lightweight transactions with linearizable consistency</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Batched writes across multiple tables are guaranteed to succeed
+completely or not at all</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Secondary indexes are guaranteed to be consistent with their local
+replicas data</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="high-scalability"><a class="anchor" href="#high-scalability"></a>High Scalability</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra is a highly scalable storage system in which nodes may be
+added/removed as needed. Using gossip-based protocol a unified and
+consistent membership list is kept at each node.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="high-availability"><a class="anchor" href="#high-availability"></a>High Availability</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra guarantees high availability of data by implementing a
+fault-tolerant storage system. Failure detection in a node is detected
+using a gossip-based protocol.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="durability"><a class="anchor" href="#durability"></a>Durability</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra guarantees data durability by using replicas. Replicas are
+multiple copies of a data stored on different nodes in a cluster. In a
+multi-datacenter environment the replicas may be stored on different
+datacenters. If one replica is lost due to unrecoverable node/datacenter
+failure the data is not completely lost as replicas are still available.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="eventual-consistency"><a class="anchor" href="#eventual-consistency"></a>Eventual Consistency</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Meeting the requirements of performance, reliability, scalability and
+high availability in production Cassandra is an eventually consistent
+storage system. Eventually consistent implies that all updates reach all
+replicas eventually. Divergent versions of the same data may exist
+temporarily but they are eventually reconciled to a consistent state.
+Eventual consistency is a tradeoff to achieve high availability and it
+involves some read and write latencies.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="lightweight-transactions-with-linearizable-consistency"><a class="anchor" href="#lightweight-transactions-with-linearizable-consistency"></a>Lightweight transactions with linearizable consistency</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Data must be read and written in a sequential order. Paxos consensus
+protocol is used to implement lightweight transactions. Paxos protocol
+implements lightweight transactions that are able to handle concurrent
+operations using linearizable consistency. Linearizable consistency is
+sequential consistency with real-time constraints and it ensures
+transaction isolation with compare and set (CAS) transaction. With CAS
+replica data is compared and data that is found to be out of date is set
+to the most consistent value. Reads with linearizable consistency allow
+reading the current state of the data, which may possibly be
+uncommitted, without making a new addition or update.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="batched-writes"><a class="anchor" href="#batched-writes"></a>Batched Writes</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>The guarantee for batched writes across multiple tables is that they
+will eventually succeed, or none will. Batch data is first written to
+batchlog system data, and when the batch data has been successfully
+stored in the cluster the batchlog data is removed. The batch is
+replicated to another node to ensure the full batch completes in the
+event the coordinator node fails.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="secondary-indexes"><a class="anchor" href="#secondary-indexes"></a>Secondary Indexes</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>A secondary index is an index on a column and is used to query a table
+that is normally not queryable. Secondary indexes when built are
+guaranteed to be consistent with their local replicas.</p>
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diff --git a/content/doc/4.0.1/4.0/cassandra/architecture/overview.html b/content/doc/4.0.1/4.0/cassandra/architecture/overview.html
new file mode 100644
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+ <li class="crumb"><a href="index.html">Architecture</a></li>
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+ </ul>
+</div>
+ </div>
+<article class="doc">
+<h1 class="page">Overview</h1>
+<div id="preamble">
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Apache Cassandra is an open source, distributed, NoSQL database. It
+presents a partitioned wide column storage model with eventually
+consistent semantics.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Apache Cassandra was initially designed at
+<a href="https://www.cs.cornell.edu/projects/ladis2009/papers/lakshman-ladis2009.pdf">Facebook</a>
+using a staged event-driven architecture
+(<a href="http://www.sosp.org/2001/papers/welsh.pdf">SEDA</a>) to implement a
+combination of Amazon’s
+<a href="http://courses.cse.tamu.edu/caverlee/csce438/readings/dynamo-paper.pdf">Dynamo</a>
+distributed storage and replication techniques and Google’s
+<a href="https://static.googleusercontent.com/media/research.google.com/en//archive/bigtable-osdi06.pdf">Bigtable</a>
+data and storage engine model. Dynamo and Bigtable were both developed
+to meet emerging requirements for scalable, reliable and highly
+available storage systems, but each had areas that could be improved.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra was designed as a best-in-class combination of both systems to
+meet emerging largescale, both in data footprint and query volume,
+storage requirements. As applications began to require full global
+replication and always available low-latency reads and writes, it became
+imperative to design a new kind of database model as the relational
+database systems of the time struggled to meet the new requirements of
+global scale applications.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Systems like Cassandra are designed for these challenges and seek the
+following design objectives:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>Full multi-master database replication</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Global availability at low latency</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Scaling out on commodity hardware</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Linear throughput increase with each additional processor</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Online load balancing and cluster growth</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Partitioned key-oriented queries</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Flexible schema</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="features"><a class="anchor" href="#features"></a>Features</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra provides the Cassandra Query Language (<a href="../cql/ddl.html" class="page">CQL</a>), an SQL-like
+language, to create and update database schema and access data. CQL
+allows users to organize data within a cluster of Cassandra nodes using:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p><strong>Keyspace</strong>: Defines how a dataset is replicated, per datacenter.
+Replication is the number of copies saved per cluster.
+Keyspaces contain tables.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p><strong>Table</strong>: Defines the typed schema for a collection of partitions.
+Tables contain partitions, which contain rows, which contain columns.
+Cassandra tables can flexibly add new columns to tables with zero downtime.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p><strong>Partition</strong>: Defines the mandatory part of the primary key all rows in
+Cassandra must have to identify the node in a cluster where the row is stored.
+All performant queries supply the partition key in the query.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p><strong>Row</strong>: Contains a collection of columns identified by a unique primary
+key made up of the partition key and optionally additional clustering
+keys.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p><strong>Column</strong>: A single datum with a type which belongs to a row.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>CQL supports numerous advanced features over a partitioned dataset such
+as:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>Single partition lightweight transactions with atomic compare and set
+semantics.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>User-defined types, functions and aggregates</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Collection types including sets, maps, and lists.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Local secondary indices</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>(Experimental) materialized views</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra explicitly chooses not to implement operations that require
+cross partition coordination as they are typically slow and hard to
+provide highly available global semantics. For example Cassandra does
+not support:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>Cross partition transactions</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Distributed joins</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>Foreign keys or referential integrity.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="operating"><a class="anchor" href="#operating"></a>Operating</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Apache Cassandra configuration settings are configured in the
+<code>cassandra.yaml</code> file that can be edited by hand or with the aid of
+configuration management tools. Some settings can be manipulated live
+using an online interface, but others require a restart of the database
+to take effect.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Cassandra provides tools for managing a cluster. The <code>nodetool</code> command
+interacts with Cassandra’s live control interface, allowing runtime
+manipulation of many settings from <code>cassandra.yaml</code>. The
+<code>auditlogviewer</code> is used to view the audit logs. The <code>fqltool</code> is used
+to view, replay and compare full query logs. The <code>auditlogviewer</code> and
+<code>fqltool</code> are new tools in Apache Cassandra 4.0.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>In addition, Cassandra supports out of the box atomic snapshot
+functionality, which presents a point in time snapshot of Cassandra’s
+data for easy integration with many backup tools. Cassandra also
+supports incremental backups where data can be backed up as it is
+written.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Apache Cassandra 4.0 has added several new features including virtual
+tables, transient replication (experimental), audit logging, full query logging, and
+support for Java 11 (experimental).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
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+ <li class="crumb"><a href="../../index.html">Cassandra</a></li>
+ <li class="crumb"><a href="snitch.html">Snitch</a></li>
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+ <li class="tool edit"><a href="https://github.com/polandll/cassandra/edit/trunk/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/architecture/snitch.adoc" title="Edit Page" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Edit</a></li>
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+<article class="doc">
+<h1 class="page">Snitch</h1>
+<div id="preamble">
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>In cassandra, the snitch has two functions:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>it teaches Cassandra enough about your network topology to route
+requests efficiently.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>it allows Cassandra to spread replicas around your cluster to avoid
+correlated failures. It does this by grouping machines into
+"datacenters" and "racks." Cassandra will do its best not to have more
+than one replica on the same "rack" (which may not actually be a
+physical location).</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="dynamic-snitching"><a class="anchor" href="#dynamic-snitching"></a>Dynamic snitching</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>The dynamic snitch monitor read latencies to avoid reading from hosts
+that have slowed down. The dynamic snitch is configured with the
+following properties on <code>cassandra.yaml</code>:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p><code>dynamic_snitch</code>: whether the dynamic snitch should be enabled or
+disabled.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p><code>dynamic_snitch_update_interval_in_ms</code>: controls how often to perform
+the more expensive part of host score calculation.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p><code>dynamic_snitch_reset_interval_in_ms</code>: if set greater than zero, this
+will allow 'pinning' of replicas to hosts in order to increase cache
+capacity.</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p><code>dynamic_snitch_badness_threshold:</code>: The badness threshold will
+control how much worse the pinned host has to be before the dynamic
+snitch will prefer other replicas over it. This is expressed as a double
+which represents a percentage. Thus, a value of 0.2 means Cassandra
+would continue to prefer the static snitch values until the pinned host
+was 20% worse than the fastest.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="snitch-classes"><a class="anchor" href="#snitch-classes"></a>Snitch classes</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>The <code>endpoint_snitch</code> parameter in <code>cassandra.yaml</code> should be set to the
+class that implements <code>IEndPointSnitch</code> which will be wrapped by the
+dynamic snitch and decide if two endpoints are in the same data center
+or on the same rack. Out of the box, Cassandra provides the snitch
+implementations:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="dlist">
+<dl>
+<dt class="hdlist1">GossipingPropertyFileSnitch</dt>
+<dd>
+<p>This should be your go-to snitch for production use. The rack and
+datacenter for the local node are defined in
+cassandra-rackdc.properties and propagated to other nodes via gossip.
+If <code>cassandra-topology.properties</code> exists, it is used as a fallback,
+allowing migration from the PropertyFileSnitch.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1">SimpleSnitch</dt>
+<dd>
+<p>Treats Strategy order as proximity. This can improve cache locality
+when disabling read repair. Only appropriate for single-datacenter
+deployments.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1">PropertyFileSnitch</dt>
+<dd>
+<p>Proximity is determined by rack and data center, which are explicitly
+configured in <code>cassandra-topology.properties</code>.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1">Ec2Snitch</dt>
+<dd>
+<p>Appropriate for EC2 deployments in a single Region, or in multiple
+regions with inter-region VPC enabled (available since the end of
+2017, see
+<a href="https://aws.amazon.com/about-aws/whats-new/2017/11/announcing-support-for-inter-region-vpc-peering/">AWS
+announcement</a>). Loads Region and Availability Zone information from
+the EC2 API. The Region is treated as the datacenter, and the
+Availability Zone as the rack. Only private IPs are used, so this will
+work across multiple regions only if inter-region VPC is enabled.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1">Ec2MultiRegionSnitch</dt>
+<dd>
+<p>Uses public IPs as broadcast_address to allow cross-region
+connectivity (thus, you should set seed addresses to the public IP as
+well). You will need to open the <code>storage_port</code> or <code>ssl_storage_port</code>
+on the public IP firewall (For intra-Region traffic, Cassandra will
+switch to the private IP after establishing a connection).</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1">RackInferringSnitch</dt>
+<dd>
+<p>Proximity is determined by rack and data center, which are assumed to
+correspond to the 3rd and 2nd octet of each node’s IP address,
+respectively. Unless this happens to match your deployment
+conventions, this is best used as an example of writing a custom
+Snitch class and is provided in that spirit.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</article>
+</main>
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+ </ul>
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+ </div>
+<article class="doc">
+<h1 class="page">Storage Engine</h1>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="commit-log"><a class="anchor" href="#commit-log"></a>CommitLog</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Commitlogs are an append only log of all mutations local to a Cassandra
+node. Any data written to Cassandra will first be written to a commit
+log before being written to a memtable. This provides durability in the
+case of unexpected shutdown. On startup, any mutations in the commit log
+will be applied to memtables.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>All mutations write optimized by storing in commitlog segments, reducing
+the number of seeks needed to write to disk. Commitlog Segments are
+limited by the <code>commitlog_segment_size_in_mb</code> option, once the size is
+reached, a new commitlog segment is created. Commitlog segments can be
+archived, deleted, or recycled once all its data has been flushed to
+SSTables. Commitlog segments are truncated when Cassandra has written
+data older than a certain point to the SSTables. Running "nodetool
+drain" before stopping Cassandra will write everything in the memtables
+to SSTables and remove the need to sync with the commitlogs on startup.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p><code>commitlog_segment_size_in_mb</code>: The default size is 32, which is
+almost always fine, but if you are archiving commitlog segments (see
+commitlog_archiving.properties), then you probably want a finer
+granularity of archiving; 8 or 16 MB is reasonable. Max mutation size is
+also configurable via <code>max_mutation_size_in_kb</code> setting in <code>cassandra.yaml</code>.
+The default is half the size <code>commitlog_segment_size_in_mb * 1024</code>.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>NOTE: If <code>max_mutation_size_in_kb</code> is set explicitly then
+<code>commitlog_segment_size_in_mb</code> must be set to at least twice the size of
+<code>max_mutation_size_in_kb / 1024</code></strong>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Commitlogs are an append only log of all mutations local to a Cassandra
+node. Any data written to Cassandra will first be written to a commit
+log before being written to a memtable. This provides durability in the
+case of unexpected shutdown. On startup, any mutations in the commit log
+will be applied.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p><code>commitlog_sync</code>: may be either <em>periodic</em> or <em>batch</em>.</p>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p><code>batch</code>: In batch mode, Cassandra won’t ack writes until the commit
+log has been fsynced to disk. It will wait
+"commitlog_sync_batch_window_in_ms" milliseconds between fsyncs. This
+window should be kept short because the writer threads will be unable to
+do extra work while waiting. You may need to increase concurrent_writes
+for the same reason.</p>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p><code>commitlog_sync_batch_window_in_ms</code>: Time to wait between "batch"
+fsyncs <em>Default Value:</em> 2</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p><code>periodic</code>: In periodic mode, writes are immediately ack’ed, and the
+CommitLog is simply synced every "commitlog_sync_period_in_ms"
+milliseconds.</p>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p><code>commitlog_sync_period_in_ms</code>: Time to wait between "periodic" fsyncs
+<em>Default Value:</em> 10000</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><em>Default Value:</em> batch</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>NOTE: In the event of an unexpected shutdown, Cassandra can lose up
+to the sync period or more if the sync is delayed. If using "batch"
+mode, it is recommended to store commitlogs in a separate, dedicated
+device.*</p>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p><code>commitlog_directory</code>: This option is commented out by default When
+running on magnetic HDD, this should be a separate spindle than the data
+directories. If not set, the default directory is
+$CASSANDRA_HOME/data/commitlog.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><em>Default Value:</em> /var/lib/cassandra/commitlog</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p><code>commitlog_compression</code>: Compression to apply to the commitlog. If
+omitted, the commit log will be written uncompressed. LZ4, Snappy,
+Deflate and Zstd compressors are supported.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>(Default Value: (complex option):</p>
+</div>
+<div class="listingblock">
+<div class="content">
+<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-yaml hljs" data-lang="yaml"># - class_name: LZ4Compressor
+# parameters:</code></pre>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p><code>commitlog_total_space_in_mb</code>: Total space to use for commit logs on
+disk.</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>If space gets above this value, Cassandra will flush every dirty CF in
+the oldest segment and remove it. So a small total commitlog space will
+tend to cause more flush activity on less-active columnfamilies.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>The default value is the smaller of 8192, and 1/4 of the total space of
+the commitlog volume.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><em>Default Value:</em> 8192</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="memtables"><a class="anchor" href="#memtables"></a>Memtables</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Memtables are in-memory structures where Cassandra buffers writes. In
+general, there is one active memtable per table. Eventually, memtables
+are flushed onto disk and become immutable <a href="#sstables">SSTables</a>.
+This can be triggered in several ways:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>The memory usage of the memtables exceeds the configured threshold
+(see <code>memtable_cleanup_threshold</code>)</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>The <code>commit-log</code> approaches its maximum size, and forces memtable
+flushes in order to allow commitlog segments to be freed</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Memtables may be stored entirely on-heap or partially off-heap,
+depending on <code>memtable_allocation_type</code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="sstables"><a class="anchor" href="#sstables"></a>SSTables</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>SSTables are the immutable data files that Cassandra uses for persisting
+data on disk.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>As SSTables are flushed to disk from <code>memtables</code> or are streamed from
+other nodes, Cassandra triggers compactions which combine multiple
+SSTables into one. Once the new SSTable has been written, the old
+SSTables can be removed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Each SSTable is comprised of multiple components stored in separate
+files:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="dlist">
+<dl>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>Data.db</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>The actual data, i.e. the contents of rows.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>Index.db</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>An index from partition keys to positions in the <code>Data.db</code> file. For
+wide partitions, this may also include an index to rows within a
+partition.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>Summary.db</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>A sampling of (by default) every 128th entry in the <code>Index.db</code> file.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>Filter.db</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>A Bloom Filter of the partition keys in the SSTable.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>CompressionInfo.db</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>Metadata about the offsets and lengths of compression chunks in the
+<code>Data.db</code> file.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>Statistics.db</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>Stores metadata about the SSTable, including information about
+timestamps, tombstones, clustering keys, compaction, repair,
+compression, TTLs, and more.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>Digest.crc32</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>A CRC-32 digest of the <code>Data.db</code> file.</p>
+</dd>
+<dt class="hdlist1"><code>TOC.txt</code></dt>
+<dd>
+<p>A plain text list of the component files for the SSTable.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Within the <code>Data.db</code> file, rows are organized by partition. These
+partitions are sorted in token order (i.e. by a hash of the partition
+key when the default partitioner, <code>Murmur3Partition</code>, is used). Within a
+partition, rows are stored in the order of their clustering keys.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>SSTables can be optionally compressed using block-based compression.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="sstable-versions"><a class="anchor" href="#sstable-versions"></a>SSTable Versions</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>This section was created using the following
+<a href="https://gist.github.com/shyamsalimkumar/49a61e5bc6f403d20c55">gist</a> which
+utilized this original
+<a href="http://www.bajb.net/2013/03/cassandra-sstable-format-version-numbers/">source</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>The version numbers, to date are:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="version-0"><a class="anchor" href="#version-0"></a>Version 0</h3>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>b (0.7.0): added version to sstable filenames</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>c (0.7.0): bloom filter component computes hashes over raw key bytes
+instead of strings</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>d (0.7.0): row size in data component becomes a long instead of int</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>e (0.7.0): stores undecorated keys in data and index components</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>f (0.7.0): switched bloom filter implementations in data component</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>g (0.8): tracks flushed-at context in metadata component</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="version-1"><a class="anchor" href="#version-1"></a>Version 1</h3>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>h (1.0): tracks max client timestamp in metadata component</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>hb (1.0.3): records compression ration in metadata component</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>hc (1.0.4): records partitioner in metadata component</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>hd (1.0.10): includes row tombstones in maxtimestamp</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>he (1.1.3): includes ancestors generation in metadata component</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>hf (1.1.6): marker that replay position corresponds to 1.1.5+
+millis-based id (see CASSANDRA-4782)</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>ia (1.2.0):</p>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>column indexes are promoted to the index file</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>records estimated histogram of deletion times in tombstones</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>bloom filter (keys and columns) upgraded to Murmur3</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>ib (1.2.1): tracks min client timestamp in metadata component</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>ic (1.2.5): omits per-row bloom filter of column names</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="version-2"><a class="anchor" href="#version-2"></a>Version 2</h3>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>ja (2.0.0):</p>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>super columns are serialized as composites (note that there is no
+real format change, this is mostly a marker to know if we should expect
+super columns or not. We do need a major version bump however, because
+we should not allow streaming of super columns into this new format)</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>tracks max local deletiontime in sstable metadata</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>records bloom_filter_fp_chance in metadata component</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>remove data size and column count from data file (CASSANDRA-4180)</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>tracks max/min column values (according to comparator)</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>jb (2.0.1):</p>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>switch from crc32 to adler32 for compression checksums</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>checksum the compressed data</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>ka (2.1.0):</p>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>new Statistics.db file format</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>index summaries can be downsampled and the sampling level is
+persisted</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>switch uncompressed checksums to adler32</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>tracks presense of legacy (local and remote) counter shards</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>la (2.2.0): new file name format</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>lb (2.2.7): commit log lower bound included</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="version-3"><a class="anchor" href="#version-3"></a>Version 3</h3>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>ma (3.0.0):</p>
+<div class="ulist">
+<ul>
+<li>
+<p>swap bf hash order</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>store rows natively</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>mb (3.0.7, 3.7): commit log lower bound included</p>
+</li>
+<li>
+<p>mc (3.0.8, 3.9): commit log intervals included</p>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect2">
+<h3 id="example-code"><a class="anchor" href="#example-code"></a>Example Code</h3>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>The following example is useful for finding all sstables that do not
+match the "ib" SSTable version</p>
+</div>
+<div class="listingblock">
+<div class="content">
+<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-bash hljs" data-lang="bash">include:example$find_sstables.sh[]</code></pre>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</article>
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diff --git a/content/doc/4.0.1/4.0/cassandra/configuration/cass_cl_archive_file.html b/content/doc/4.0.1/4.0/cassandra/configuration/cass_cl_archive_file.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5024c79
--- /dev/null
+++ b/content/doc/4.0.1/4.0/cassandra/configuration/cass_cl_archive_file.html
@@ -0,0 +1,919 @@
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+<h2 id="cassandra-cl-archive"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-cl-archive"></a>commitlog-archiving.properties file</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>The <code>commitlog-archiving.properties</code> configuration file can optionally
+set commands that are executed when archiving or restoring a commitlog
+segment.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="options"><a class="anchor" href="#options"></a>Options</h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><code>archive_command=<command></code> ------One command can be inserted with %path
+and %name arguments. %path is the fully qualified path of the commitlog
+segment to archive. %name is the filename of the commitlog. STDOUT,
+STDIN, or multiple commands cannot be executed. If multiple commands are
+required, add a pointer to a script in this option.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Example:</strong> archive_command=/bin/ln %path /backup/%name</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default value:</strong> blank</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><code>restore_command=<command></code> ------One command can be inserted with %from
+and %to arguments. %from is the fully qualified path to an archived
+commitlog segment using the specified restore directories. %to defines
+the directory to the live commitlog location.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Example:</strong> restore_command=/bin/cp -f %from %to</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default value:</strong> blank</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><code>restore_directories=<directory></code> ------Defines the directory to scan
+the recovery files into.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default value:</strong> blank</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><code>restore_point_in_time=<timestamp></code> ------Restore mutations created up
+to and including this timestamp in GMT in the format
+<code>yyyy:MM:dd HH:mm:ss</code>. Recovery will continue through the segment when
+the first client-supplied timestamp greater than this time is
+encountered, but only mutations less than or equal to this timestamp
+will be applied.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Example:</strong> 2020:04:31 20:43:12</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default value:</strong> blank</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><code>precision=<timestamp_precision></code> ------Precision of the timestamp used
+in the inserts. Choice is generally MILLISECONDS or MICROSECONDS</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default value:</strong> MICROSECONDS</p>
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diff --git a/content/doc/4.0.1/4.0/cassandra/configuration/cass_env_sh_file.html b/content/doc/4.0.1/4.0/cassandra/configuration/cass_env_sh_file.html
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+ <li class="crumb"><a href="index.html">Configuration</a></li>
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+ </ul>
+</div>
+ </div>
+<article class="doc">
+<h1 class="page">cassandra-env.sh file</h1>
+<div id="preamble">
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>The <code>cassandra-env.sh</code> bash script file can be used to pass additional
+options to the Java virtual machine (JVM), such as maximum and minimum
+heap size, rather than setting them in the environment. If the JVM
+settings are static and do not need to be computed from the node
+characteristics, the <code>cassandra-jvm-options</code> files should be used
+instead. For example, commonly computed values are the heap sizes, using
+the system values.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>For example, add
+<code>JVM_OPTS="$JVM_OPTS -Dcassandra.load_ring_state=false"</code> to the
+<code>cassandra_env.sh</code> file and run the command-line <code>cassandra</code> to start.
+The option is set from the <code>cassandra-env.sh</code> file, and is equivalent to
+starting Cassandra with the command-line option
+<code>cassandra -Dcassandra.load_ring_state=false</code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>The <code>-D</code> option specifies the start-up parameters in both the command
+line and <code>cassandra-env.sh</code> file. The following options are available:</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-auto_bootstrapfalse"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-auto_bootstrapfalse"></a><code>cassandra.auto_bootstrap=false</code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Facilitates setting auto_bootstrap to false on initial set-up of the
+cluster. The next time you start the cluster, you do not need to change
+the <code>cassandra.yaml</code> file on each node to revert to true, the default
+value.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-available_processorsnumber_of_processors"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-available_processorsnumber_of_processors"></a><code>cassandra.available_processors=<number_of_processors></code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>In a multi-instance deployment, multiple Cassandra instances will
+independently assume that all CPU processors are available to it. This
+setting allows you to specify a smaller set of processors.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-boot_without_jnatrue"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-boot_without_jnatrue"></a><code>cassandra.boot_without_jna=true</code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>If JNA fails to initialize, Cassandra fails to boot. Use this command to
+boot Cassandra without JNA.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-configdirectory"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-configdirectory"></a><code>cassandra.config=<directory></code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>The directory location of the <code>cassandra.yaml file</code>. The default
+location depends on the type of installation.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-ignore_dynamic_snitch_severitytruefalse"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-ignore_dynamic_snitch_severitytruefalse"></a><code>cassandra.ignore_dynamic_snitch_severity=true|false</code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Setting this property to true causes the dynamic snitch to ignore the
+severity indicator from gossip when scoring nodes. Explore failure
+detection and recovery and dynamic snitching for more information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default:</strong> false</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-initial_tokentoken"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-initial_tokentoken"></a><code>cassandra.initial_token=<token></code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Use when virtual nodes (vnodes) are not used. Sets the initial
+partitioner token for a node the first time the node is started. Note:
+Vnodes are highly recommended as they automatically select tokens.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default:</strong> disabled</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-join_ringtruefalse"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-join_ringtruefalse"></a><code>cassandra.join_ring=true|false</code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Set to false to start Cassandra on a node but not have the node join the
+cluster. You can use <code>nodetool join</code> and a JMX call to join the ring
+afterwards.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default:</strong> true</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-load_ring_statetruefalse"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-load_ring_statetruefalse"></a><code>cassandra.load_ring_state=true|false</code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Set to false to clear all gossip state for the node on restart.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default:</strong> true</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-metricsreporterconfigfilefilename"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-metricsreporterconfigfilefilename"></a><code>cassandra.metricsReporterConfigFile=<filename></code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Enable pluggable metrics reporter. Explore pluggable metrics reporting
+for more information.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-partitionerpartitioner"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-partitionerpartitioner"></a><code>cassandra.partitioner=<partitioner></code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Set the partitioner.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default:</strong> org.apache.cassandra.dht.Murmur3Partitioner</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-prepared_statements_cache_size_in_bytescache_size"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-prepared_statements_cache_size_in_bytescache_size"></a><code>cassandra.prepared_statements_cache_size_in_bytes=<cache_size></code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Set the cache size for prepared statements.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-replace_addresslisten_address-of-dead-nodebroadcast_address-of-dead-node"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-replace_addresslisten_address-of-dead-nodebroadcast_address-of-dead-node"></a><code>cassandra.replace_address=<listen_address of dead node>|<broadcast_address of dead node></code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>To replace a node that has died, restart a new node in its place
+specifying the <code>listen_address</code> or <code>broadcast_address</code> that the new node
+is assuming. The new node must not have any data in its data directory,
+the same state as before bootstrapping. Note: The <code>broadcast_address</code>
+defaults to the <code>listen_address</code> except when using the
+<code>Ec2MultiRegionSnitch</code>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-replaylisttable"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-replaylisttable"></a><code>cassandra.replayList=<table></code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Allow restoring specific tables from an archived commit log.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-ring_delay_msnumber_of_ms"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-ring_delay_msnumber_of_ms"></a><code>cassandra.ring_delay_ms=<number_of_ms></code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Defines the amount of time a node waits to hear from other nodes before
+formally joining the ring.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default:</strong> 1000ms</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-native_transport_portport"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-native_transport_portport"></a><code>cassandra.native_transport_port=<port></code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Set the port on which the CQL native transport listens for clients.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default:</strong> 9042</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-rpc_portport"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-rpc_portport"></a><code>cassandra.rpc_port=<port></code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Set the port for the Thrift RPC service, which is used for client
+connections.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default:</strong> 9160</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-storage_portport"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-storage_portport"></a><code>cassandra.storage_port=<port></code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Set the port for inter-node communication.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default:</strong> 7000</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-ssl_storage_portport"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-ssl_storage_portport"></a><code>cassandra.ssl_storage_port=<port></code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Set the SSL port for encrypted communication.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default:</strong> 7001</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-start_native_transporttruefalse"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-start_native_transporttruefalse"></a><code>cassandra.start_native_transport=true|false</code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Enable or disable the native transport server. See
+<code>start_native_transport</code> in <code>cassandra.yaml</code>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default:</strong> true</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-start_rpctruefalse"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-start_rpctruefalse"></a><code>cassandra.start_rpc=true|false</code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Enable or disable the Thrift RPC server.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default:</strong> true</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-triggers_dirdirectory"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-triggers_dirdirectory"></a><code>cassandra.triggers_dir=<directory></code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Set the default location for the trigger JARs.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p><strong>Default:</strong> conf/triggers</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="cassandra-write_surveytrue"><a class="anchor" href="#cassandra-write_surveytrue"></a><code>cassandra.write_survey=true</code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>For testing new compaction and compression strategies. It allows you to
+experiment with different strategies and benchmark write performance
+differences without affecting the production workload.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="sect1">
+<h2 id="consistent-rangemovementtruefalse"><a class="anchor" href="#consistent-rangemovementtruefalse"></a><code>consistent.rangemovement=true|false</code></h2>
+<div class="sectionbody">
+<div class="paragraph">
+<p>Set to true makes Cassandra perform bootstrap safely without violating
+consistency. False disables this.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
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diff --git a/content/doc/4.0.1/4.0/cassandra/configuration/cass_jvm_options_file.html b/content/doc/4.0.1/4.0/cassandra/configuration/cass_jvm_options_file.html
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+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html lang="en">
+ <head>
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+ <title>jvm-* files | Apache Cassandra Documentation</title>
+ <link rel="canonical" href="https://cassandra.apache.org/Cassandra/4.0/cassandra/configuration/cass_jvm_options_file.html">
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