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Posted to commits@cassandra.apache.org by mc...@apache.org on 2023/12/08 22:57:58 UTC
(cassandra) branch cassandra-5.0 updated: Rewrite compaction documentation, adding UCS
This is an automated email from the ASF dual-hosted git repository.
mck pushed a commit to branch cassandra-5.0
in repository https://gitbox.apache.org/repos/asf/cassandra.git
The following commit(s) were added to refs/heads/cassandra-5.0 by this push:
new 93a4fcd32c Rewrite compaction documentation, adding UCS
93a4fcd32c is described below
commit 93a4fcd32c2b58a116498ac9eb31752bf07bae71
Author: Lorina Poland <lo...@datastax.com>
AuthorDate: Mon Nov 6 13:51:18 2023 -0800
Rewrite compaction documentation, adding UCS
Adds some SAI/Vector doc fixes too.
patch by Lorina Poland, Branimir Lambov; reviewed by Mick Semb Wever for CASSANDRA-18232
---
doc/modules/ROOT/pages/index.adoc | 10 +-
.../cassandra/assets/images/unified/sharding.png | Bin 0 -> 40953 bytes
.../images/unified/shards_graph_lambda_0.svg | 2180 +++++++++++++++++++
.../images/unified/shards_graph_lambda_0_33.svg | 2203 +++++++++++++++++++
.../images/unified/shards_graph_lambda_0_5.svg | 2238 ++++++++++++++++++++
.../images/unified/shards_graph_lambda_1.svg | 1943 +++++++++++++++++
.../cassandra/assets/images/unified/ucs.png | Bin 0 -> 46473 bytes
doc/modules/cassandra/nav.adoc | 32 +-
.../cassandra/pages/architecture/overview.adoc | 109 +-
.../pages/architecture/storage-engine.adoc | 225 +-
.../cql/indexing/sai/_user-defined-type-match.adoc | 2 +-
.../developing/cql/indexing/sai/sai-query.adoc | 2 +
.../pages/managing/operating/compaction/index.adoc | 341 +--
.../pages/managing/operating/compaction/lcs.adoc | 148 +-
.../managing/operating/compaction/overview.adoc | 235 ++
.../pages/managing/operating/compaction/stcs.adoc | 126 +-
.../managing/operating/compaction/tombstones.adoc | 129 ++
.../pages/managing/operating/compaction/twcs.adoc | 163 +-
.../pages/managing/operating/compaction/ucs.adoc | 626 ++++++
.../cassandra/pages/managing/operating/index.adoc | 23 +-
.../pages/managing/operating/logging.adoc | 5 +
doc/modules/cassandra/pages/new/index.adoc | 37 +-
.../cql-commands/compact-subproperties.adoc | 209 +-
.../pages/reference/vector-data-type.adoc | 4 +
.../cassandra/partials/compaction-strategies.adoc | 4 +-
.../partials/default-compaction-strategy.adoc | 5 +
.../cassandra/partials/sai/sai-only-select.adoc | 4 +
doc/modules/cassandra/partials/ucs-recommend.adoc | 5 +
28 files changed, 10210 insertions(+), 798 deletions(-)
diff --git a/doc/modules/ROOT/pages/index.adoc b/doc/modules/ROOT/pages/index.adoc
index 2533479169..02b3f949ea 100644
--- a/doc/modules/ROOT/pages/index.adoc
+++ b/doc/modules/ROOT/pages/index.adoc
@@ -16,18 +16,24 @@ If you would like to contribute to this documentation, you are welcome to do so
| xref:cassandra:new/index.adoc[What's new in 5.0] | What's new in Cassandra 5.0
+| xref:cassandra:overview/index.adoc[Overview] | Cassandra's features
+
| xref:cassandra:architecture/index.adoc[Architecture] | Cassandra's big picture
| xref:cassandra:developing/data-modeling/index.adoc[Data modeling] | Hint: it's not relational
| xref:cassandra:developing/cql/index.adoc[Cassandra Query Language (CQL)] | CQL reference documentation
-| xref:cassandra:getting-started/configuration/index.adoc[Configuration] | Cassandra's handles and knobs
+| xref:cassandra:getting-started/configuring.adoc[Configuring] | Cassandra's handles and knobs
-| xref:cassandra:managing/operating/index.adoc[Operation] | The operator's corner
+| xref:cassandra:managing/operating/index.adoc[Operating] | The operator's corner
| xref:cassandra:managing/tools/index.adoc[Tools] | cqlsh, nodetool, and others
+| xref:cassandra:vector-search/overview.adoc[Vector Search] | Vector Search
+
+| xref:cassandra:reference/index.adoc[Reference] | Reference
+
| xref:cassandra:troubleshooting/index.adoc[Troubleshooting] | What to look for when you have a problem
| xref:cassandra:overview/faq/index.adoc[FAQ] | Frequently asked questions
diff --git a/doc/modules/cassandra/assets/images/unified/sharding.png b/doc/modules/cassandra/assets/images/unified/sharding.png
new file mode 100644
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diff --git a/doc/modules/cassandra/assets/images/unified/shards_graph_lambda_0.svg b/doc/modules/cassandra/assets/images/unified/shards_graph_lambda_0.svg
new file mode 100644
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+ <path d="M 69.59 303.64
+L 69.59 194.28
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+ </g>
+ <g id="patch_9">
+ <path d="M 450 303.64
+L 450 194.28
+" style="fill: none; stroke: #000000; stroke-width: 0.8; stroke-linejoin: miter; stroke-linecap: square"/>
+ </g>
+ <g id="patch_10">
+ <path d="M 69.59 303.64
+L 450 303.64
+" style="fill: none; stroke: #000000; stroke-width: 0.8; stroke-linejoin: miter; stroke-linecap: square"/>
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+ <g id="patch_11">
+ <path d="M 69.59 194.28
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+ </g>
+ <g id="text_25">
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diff --git a/doc/modules/cassandra/assets/images/unified/shards_graph_lambda_1.svg b/doc/modules/cassandra/assets/images/unified/shards_graph_lambda_1.svg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..55ba22dde8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/modules/cassandra/assets/images/unified/shards_graph_lambda_1.svg
@@ -0,0 +1,1943 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
+<!--
+ Licensed to the Apache Software Foundation (ASF) under one or more
+ contributor license agreements. See the NOTICE file distributed with
+ this work for additional information regarding copyright ownership.
+ The ASF licenses this file to You under the Apache License, Version 2.0
+ (the "License"); you may not use this file except in compliance with
+ the License. You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+ http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+ Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ limitations under the License.
+-->
+<!DOCTYPE svg PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD SVG 1.1//EN"
+ "http://www.w3.org/Graphics/SVG/1.1/DTD/svg11.dtd">
+
+<!--
+Generated using the following python script:
+
+import math
+import numpy
+import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+import matplotlib.ticker as ticker
+
+
+m = 100000000
+t = 1000000000
+b = 10
+l = 1
+
+def f(d):
+ if (d < m):
+ return 1;
+ elif d < m * b:
+ return min(2**math.floor(math.log2(d/m)), b & -b)
+ elif d < t * b:
+ return b
+ else:
+ return b*2**math.floor((1 - l) * math.log2(d/(t*b)) + 0.5)
+
+
+e_values = list(range(1250, 2200))
+x_values = [2**(x/50) for x in e_values]
+fx_values = [f(x) for x in x_values]
+x_f_ratio_values = [x / fx if fx > 0 else 0 for x, fx in zip(x_values, fx_values)]
+
+
+# plt.plot(x_values, fx_values, 'b', label='shards')
+# plt.plot(x_values, x_f_ratio_values, 'r', label='SSTable size MiB')
+# plt.xscale('log')
+# plt.yscale('log')
+# plt.xlabel('density MiB')
+# plt.ylabel('shards / MiB')
+# plt.legend()
+# plt.title('SSTable size and shard count')
+# plt.grid()
+# plt.show()
+
+
+fig, (ax0, ax1) = plt.subplots(nrows=2)
+
+formatter0 = ticker.EngFormatter(unit='B')
+formatter1 = ticker.ScalarFormatter(useMathText=True)
+#ax1.axis('equal')
+ax0.set_xscale('log')
+ax0.set_yscale('log', base=2)
+ax1.set_xscale('log')
+ax1.set_yscale('log')
+ax0.xaxis.set_major_formatter(formatter0)
+ax0.yaxis.set_major_locator(ticker.FixedLocator([1, 2, 4, 10]))
+ax0.yaxis.set_major_formatter(formatter1)
+ax1.xaxis.set_major_formatter(formatter0)
+ax1.yaxis.set_major_formatter(formatter0)
+
+ax0.plot(x_values, fx_values, 'b', label='shards')
+ax0.set_xlabel('density')
+ax0.set_ylabel('shards')
+ax0.set_title('Shard count')
+ax0.grid()
+
+ax1.plot(x_values, x_f_ratio_values, 'r', label='SSTable size')
+ax1.set_xlabel('density')
+ax1.set_ylabel('SSTable size')
+ax1.set_title('SSTable size')
+ax1.grid()
+
+plt.tight_layout()
+plt.show()
+-->
+
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+ <cc:Work>
+ <dc:type rdf:resource="http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/StillImage"/>
+ <dc:date>2023-10-26T11:50:35.670645</dc:date>
+ <dc:format>image/svg+xml</dc:format>
+ <dc:creator>
+ <cc:Agent>
+ <dc:title>Matplotlib v3.7.1, https://matplotlib.org/</dc:title>
+ </cc:Agent>
+ </dc:creator>
+ </cc:Work>
+ </rdf:RDF>
+ </metadata>
+ <defs>
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+ </defs>
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+ <g id="matplotlib.axis_1">
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diff --git a/doc/modules/cassandra/assets/images/unified/ucs.png b/doc/modules/cassandra/assets/images/unified/ucs.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..2b193e48d7
Binary files /dev/null and b/doc/modules/cassandra/assets/images/unified/ucs.png differ
diff --git a/doc/modules/cassandra/nav.adoc b/doc/modules/cassandra/nav.adoc
index 1a2eed974e..7d79e4fcc7 100644
--- a/doc/modules/cassandra/nav.adoc
+++ b/doc/modules/cassandra/nav.adoc
@@ -83,26 +83,26 @@
**** xref:cassandra:managing/configuration/cass_jvm_options_file.adoc[jvm-* files]
**** xref:cassandra:managing/configuration/configuration.adoc[Liberating cassandra.yaml Parameters' Names from Their Units]
*** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/index.adoc[]
-**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/snitch.adoc[Snitches]
-**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/topo_changes.adoc[Topology changes]
-**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/repair.adoc[Repair]
-**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/read_repair.adoc[Read repair]
-**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/hints.adoc[Hints]
-**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/bloom_filters.adoc[Bloom filters]
-**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/compression.adoc[Compression]
-**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/cdc.adoc[Change Data Capture (CDC)]
**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/backups.adoc[Backups]
+**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/bloom_filters.adoc[Bloom filters]
**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/bulk_loading.adoc[Bulk loading]
-**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/metrics.adoc[Metrics]
-**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/security.adoc[Security]
-**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/hardware.adoc[Hardware]
+**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/cdc.adoc[Change Data Capture (CDC)]
**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/compaction/index.adoc[Compaction]
-**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/virtualtables.adoc[Virtual tables]
-**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/auditlogging.adoc[Audit logging]
-**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/audit_logging.adoc[Audit logging 2]
-**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/fqllogging.adoc[Full query logging]
+**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/compression.adoc[Compression]
+**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/hardware.adoc[Hardware]
+**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/hints.adoc[Hints]
+**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/logging.adoc[Logging]
+***** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/auditlogging.adoc[Audit logging]
+***** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/audit_logging.adoc[Audit logging 2]
+***** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/fqllogging.adoc[Full query logging]
+**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/metrics.adoc[Monitoring metrics]
+**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/repair.adoc[Repair]
+**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/read_repair.adoc[Read repair]
+**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/security.adoc[Security]
+**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/snitch.adoc[Snitches]
+**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/topo_changes.adoc[Topology changes]
**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/transientreplication.adoc[Transient replication]
-
+**** xref:cassandra:managing/operating/virtualtables.adoc[Virtual tables]
*** xref:cassandra:managing/tools/index.adoc[Tools]
**** xref:cassandra:managing/tools/cqlsh.adoc[cqlsh: the CQL shell]
**** xref:cassandra:managing/tools/nodetool/nodetool.adoc[nodetool]
diff --git a/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/architecture/overview.adoc b/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/architecture/overview.adoc
index 92536c1304..dd0e287396 100644
--- a/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/architecture/overview.adoc
+++ b/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/architecture/overview.adoc
@@ -1,34 +1,20 @@
= Overview
:exper: experimental
-Apache Cassandra is an open-source, distributed, NoSQL database. It
-presents a partitioned wide column storage model with eventually
-consistent semantics.
-
-Apache Cassandra was initially designed at
-https://www.cs.cornell.edu/projects/ladis2009/papers/lakshman-ladis2009.pdf[Facebook]
-using a staged event-driven architecture
-(http://www.sosp.org/2001/papers/welsh.pdf[SEDA]) to implement a
-combination of Amazon’s
-https://www.cs.cornell.edu/courses/cs5414/2017fa/papers/dynamo.pdf[Dynamo]
-distributed storage and replication techniques and Google's
-https://static.googleusercontent.com/media/research.google.com/en//archive/bigtable-osdi06.pdf[Bigtable]
-data and storage engine model. Dynamo and Bigtable were both developed
-to meet emerging requirements for scalable, reliable and highly
-available storage systems, but each had areas that could be improved.
-
-Cassandra was designed as a best-in-class combination of both systems to
-meet emerging largescale, both in data footprint and query volume,
-storage requirements. As applications began to require full global
-replication and always available low-latency reads and writes, it became
-imperative to design a new kind of database model as the relational
-database systems of the time struggled to meet the new requirements of
-global-scale applications.
-
-Systems like Cassandra are designed for these challenges and seek the
-following design objectives:
-
-* Full multi-master database replication
+{product} is an open-source, distributed NoSQL database.
+It implements a partitioned wide-column storage model with eventually consistent semantics.
+
+{cassandra} was initially designed at https://www.cs.cornell.edu/projects/ladis2009/papers/lakshman-ladis2009.pdf[Facebook] using a staged event-driven architecture (http://www.sosp.org/2001/papers/welsh.pdf[SEDA]).
+This initial design implemented a combination of Amazon's https://www.cs.cornell.edu/courses/cs5414/2017fa/papers/dynamo.pdf[Dynamo] distributed storage and replication techniques and Google's https://static.googleusercontent.com/media/research.google.com/en//archive/bigtable-osdi06.pdf[Bigtable] data and storage engine model.
+Dynamo and Bigtable were both developed to meet emerging requirements for scalable, reliable and highly available storage systems, but each had areas that could be improved.
+
+{product} was designed as a best-in-class combination of both systems to meet emerging largescale, both in data footprint and query volume, storage requirements.
+As applications began to require full global replication and always available low-latency reads and writes, a new kind of database model was required to meet these new requirements.
+Relational database systems at that time struggled to meet the the requirements.
+
+{product} was designed to meet these challenges with the following design objectives in mind:
+
+* Full multi-primary database replication
* Global availability at low latency
* Scaling out on commodity hardware
* Linear throughput increase with each additional processor
@@ -38,38 +24,41 @@ following design objectives:
== Features
-Cassandra provides the Cassandra Query Language (xref:cassandra:developing/cql/ddl.adoc[CQL]), an SQL-like
-language, to create and update database schema and access data. CQL
-allows users to organize data within a cluster of Cassandra nodes using:
+{cassandra} provides the Cassandra Query Language (xref:cassandra:developing/cql/ddl.adoc[CQL]), an SQL-like
+language, to create, modify, and delete database schema, as well as access data.
+CQL allows users to organize data within a cluster of {cassandra} nodes using:
-* *Keyspace*: Defines how a dataset is replicated, per datacenter.
+* Keyspace: Defines how a dataset is replicated, per datacenter.
Replication is the number of copies saved per cluster.
Keyspaces contain tables.
-* *Table*: Defines the typed schema for a collection of partitions.
-Tables contain partitions, which contain rows, which contain columns.
-Cassandra tables can flexibly add new columns to tables with zero downtime.
-* *Partition*: Defines the mandatory part of the primary key all rows in
-Cassandra must have to identify the node in a cluster where the row is stored.
+* Table: Tables are composed of rows and columns.
+Columns define the typed schema for a single datum in a table.
+Tables are partitioned based on the columns provided in the partition key.
+{cassandra} tables can flexibly add new columns to tables with zero downtime.
+* Partition: Defines the mandatory part of the primary key all rows in
+{cassandra} must have to identify the node in a cluster where the row is stored.
All performant queries supply the partition key in the query.
-* *Row*: Contains a collection of columns identified by a unique primary
+* Row: Contains a collection of columns identified by a unique primary
key made up of the partition key and optionally additional clustering
keys.
-* *Column*: A single datum with a type which belongs to a row.
+* Column: A single datum with a type which belongs to a row.
CQL supports numerous advanced features over a partitioned dataset such
as:
+* Collection types including sets, maps, and lists
+* User-defined types, tuples, functions and aggregates
+* Storage-attached indexing (SAI) for secondary indexes
+* Local secondary indexes (2i)
+* User-defined types, functions and aggregates
* Single-partition lightweight transactions with atomic compare and set
semantics
-* User-defined types, functions and aggregates
-* Collection types including sets, maps, and lists
-* Local secondary indices
* (Experimental) materialized views
-Cassandra explicitly chooses not to implement operations that require
+{cassandra} explicitly chooses not to implement operations that require
cross-partition coordination as they are typically slow and hard to
-provide highly available global semantics. For example Cassandra does
-not support:
+provide highly available global semantics.
+For example, {cassandra} does not support:
* Cross-partition transactions
* Distributed joins
@@ -77,25 +66,15 @@ not support:
== Operating
-Apache Cassandra configuration settings are configured in the
-`cassandra.yaml` file that can be edited by hand or with the aid of
-configuration management tools. Some settings can be manipulated live
-using an online interface, but others require a restart of the database
+{product} configuration settings are configured in the `cassandra.yaml` file that can be edited by hand or with the aid of configuration management tools.
+Some settings can be manipulated live using an online interface, but others require a restart of the database
to take effect.
-Cassandra provides tools for managing a cluster. The `nodetool` command
-interacts with Cassandra's live control interface, allowing runtime
-manipulation of many settings from `cassandra.yaml`. The
-`auditlogviewer` is used to view the audit logs. The `fqltool` is used
-to view, replay and compare full query logs. The `auditlogviewer` and
-`fqltool` are new tools in Apache Cassandra {40_version}.
-
-In addition, Cassandra supports out of the box atomic snapshot
-functionality, which presents a point in time snapshot of Cassandra's
-data for easy integration with many backup tools. Cassandra also
-supports incremental backups where data can be backed up as it is
-written.
-
-Apache Cassandra {40_version} has added several new features including virtual
-tables, transient replication ({exper}), audit logging, full query logging, and
-support for Java 11 (full support since 4.0.2 version).
+{cassandra} provides tools for managing a cluster.
+The `nodetool` command interacts with Cassandra's live control interface, allowing runtime
+manipulation of many settings from `cassandra.yaml`.
+The `auditlogviewer` is used to view the audit logs.
+The `fqltool` is used to view, replay and compare full query logs.
+
+In addition, {cassandra} supports out of the box atomic snapshot functionality, which presents a point in time (PIT) snapshot of Cassandra's data for easy integration with many backup tools.
+{cassandra} also supports incremental backups where data can be backed up as it is written.
diff --git a/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/architecture/storage-engine.adoc b/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/architecture/storage-engine.adoc
index 10b9c7ca78..51e6f6e9dc 100644
--- a/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/architecture/storage-engine.adoc
+++ b/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/architecture/storage-engine.adoc
@@ -1,46 +1,42 @@
= Storage Engine
+{cassandra} processes data at several stages on the write path, starting with the immediate logging of a write and ending in with a write of data to disk:
+
+* Logging data in the commit log
+* Writing data to the memtable
+* Flushing data from the memtable
+* Storing data on disk in SSTables
+
[[commit-log]]
-== CommitLog
-
-Commitlogs are an append-only log of all mutations local to a Cassandra
-node. Any data written to Cassandra will first be written to a commit
-log before being written to a memtable. This provides durability in the
-case of unexpected shutdown. On startup, any mutations in the commit log
-will be applied to memtables.
-
-All mutations are write-optimized by storing in commitlog segments, reducing
-the number of seeks needed to write to disk. Commitlog segments are
-limited by the `commitlog_segment_size` option. Once the size is
-reached, a new commitlog segment is created. Commitlog segments can be
-archived, deleted, or recycled once all the data has been flushed to
-SSTables. Commitlog segments are truncated when Cassandra has written
-data older than a certain point to the SSTables. Running "nodetool
-drain" before stopping Cassandra will write everything in the memtables
-to SSTables and remove the need to sync with the commitlogs on startup.
-
-* `commitlog_segment_size`: The default size is 32MiB, which is
-almost always fine, but if you are archiving commitlog segments (see
-commitlog_archiving.properties), then you probably want a finer
-granularity of archiving; 8 or 16 MiB is reasonable.
-`commitlog_segment_size` also determines the default value of
-`max_mutation_size` in `cassandra.yaml`. By default,
-`max_mutation_size` is a half the size of `commitlog_segment_size`.
+== Logging writes to commit logs
+
+When a write occurs, {cassandra} writes the data to a local append-only (https://cassandra.apache.org/_/glossary.html#commit-log)[commit log] on disk.
+This action provides xref:cassandra:managing/configuration/cass_yaml_file.adoc[configurable durability] by logging every write made to a {cassandra} node.
+If an unexpected shutdown occurs, the commit log provides permanent durable writes of the data.
+On startup, any mutations in the commit log will be applied to (https://cassandra.apache.org/_/glossary.html#memtable)[memtables].
+The commit log is shared among tables.
+
+All mutations are write-optimized on storage in commit log segments, reducing the number of seeks needed to write to disk.
+Commit log segments are limited by the xref:cassandra:managing/configuration/cass_yaml_file.adoc#commitlog_segment_size[`commitlog_segment_size`] option.
+Once the defined size is reached, a new commit log segment is created.
+Commit log segments can be archived, deleted, or recycled once all the data is flushed to
+(https://cassandra.apache.org/_/glossary.html#sstable)[SSTables].
+Commit log segments are truncated when {cassandra} has written data older than a certain point to the SSTables.
+Running xref:managing:tools/nodetool/drain.adoc[`nodetool drain`] before stopping {cassandra} will write everything in the memtables
+to SSTables and remove the need to sync with the commit logs on startup.
+
+* xref:cassandra:managing/configuration/cass_yaml_file.adoc#commitlog_segment_size [`commitlog_segment_size`]: The default size is 32MiB, which is almost always fine, but if you are archiving commitlog segments (see commitlog_archiving.properties), then you probably want a finer granularity of archiving; 8 or 16 MiB is reasonable.
+`commitlog_segment_size` also determines the default value of xref:cassandra:managing/configuration/cass_yaml_file.adoc#max_mutation_size[`max_mutation_size`] in `cassandra.yaml`. By default, `max_mutation_size` is a half the size of `commitlog_segment_size`.
[NOTE]
====
-If `max_mutation_size` is set explicitly then
-`commitlog_segment_size` must be set to at least twice the size of
-`max_mutation_size`.
+If `max_mutation_size` is set explicitly then `commitlog_segment_size` must be set to at least twice the size of `max_mutation_size`.
====
-* `commitlog_sync`: may be either _periodic_ or _batch_.
-** `batch`: In batch mode, Cassandra won’t ack writes until the commit
-log has been fsynced to disk.
+* xref:cassandra:managing/configuration/cass_yaml_file.adoc#commitlog_sync[`commitlog_sync`]: may be either _periodic_ or _batch_.
+** `batch`: In batch mode, {cassandra} won't acknowledge writes until the commit log has been fsynced to disk.
+
-** `periodic`: In periodic mode, writes are immediately ack'ed, and the
-CommitLog is simply synced every "commitlog_sync_period"
-milliseconds.
+** `periodic`: In periodic mode, writes are immediately acknowledged, and the commit log is simply synced every "commitlog_sync_period" milliseconds.
+
- `commitlog_sync_period`: Time to wait between "periodic" fsyncs
_Default Value:_ 10000ms
@@ -49,22 +45,19 @@ _Default Value:_ batch
[NOTE]
====
-In the event of an unexpected shutdown, Cassandra can lose up
-to the sync period or more if the sync is delayed. If using "batch"
-mode, it is recommended to store commitlogs in a separate, dedicated
-device.
+In the event of an unexpected shutdown, {cassandra} can lose up to the sync period or more if the sync is delayed.
+If using `batch` mode, it is recommended to store commit logs in a separate, dedicated device.
====
-* `commitlog_directory`: This option is commented out by default. When
-running on magnetic HDD, this should be a separate spindle than the data
-directories. If not set, the default directory is
-`$CASSANDRA_HOME/data/commitlog`.
+* xref:cassandra:managing/configuration/cass_yaml_file.adoc#commitlog_directory[`commitlog_directory`]: This option is commented out by default.
+When running on magnetic HDD, this should be a separate spindle than the data directories.
+If not set, the default directory is `$CASSANDRA_HOME/data/commitlog`.
_Default Value:_ `/var/lib/cassandra/commitlog`
-* `commitlog_compression`: Compression to apply to the commitlog. If
-omitted, the commit log will be written uncompressed. LZ4, Snappy,
-Deflate and Zstd compressors are supported.
+* xref:cassandra:managing/configuration/cass_yaml_file.adoc#commitlog_compression[`commitlog_compression`]: Compression to apply to the commitlog.
+If omitted, the commit log will be written uncompressed.
+LZ4, Snappy,Deflate and Zstd compressors are supported.
_Default Value:_ (complex option):
@@ -74,81 +67,94 @@ _Default Value:_ (complex option):
# parameters:
----
-* `commitlog_total_space`: Total space to use for commit logs on
-disk.
-
-If space gets above this value, Cassandra will flush every dirty CF in
-the oldest segment and remove it. So a small total commitlog space will
-tend to cause more flush activity on less-active columnfamilies.
-
-The default value is the smallest between 8192 and 1/4 of the total
-space of the commitlog volume.
+* xref:cassandra:managing/configuration/cass_yaml_file.adoc#commitlog_total_space[`commitlog_total_space`]: Total space to use for commit logs on disk.
+This option is commented out by default.
+If space gets above this value, {cassandra} will flush every dirty table in the oldest segment and remove it.
+So a small total commit log space will tend to cause more flush activity on less-active tables.
+The default value is the smallest between 8192 and 1/4 of the total space of the commitlog volume.
_Default Value:_ 8192MiB
== Memtables
-Memtables are in-memory structures where Cassandra buffers writes. In
-general, there is one active memtable per table. Eventually, memtables
-are flushed onto disk and become immutable link:#sstables[SSTables].
-This can be triggered in several ways:
+When a write occurs, {cassandra} also writes the data to a memtable.
+Memtables are in-memory structures where {cassandra} buffers writes.
+In general, there is one active memtable per table.
+The memtable is a write-back cache of data partitions that {cassandra} looks up by key.
+Memtables may be stored entirely on-heap or partially off-heap, depending on xref:cassandra:managing/configuration/cass_yaml_file.adoc#memtable_allocation_type[`memtable_allocation_type`].
-* The memory usage of the memtables exceeds the configured threshold
-(see `memtable_cleanup_threshold`)
-* The `commit-log` approaches its maximum size, and forces memtable
-flushes in order to allow commitlog segments to be freed
+The memtable stores writes in sorted order until reaching a configurable limit.
+When the limit is reached, memtables are flushed onto disk and become immutable xref:#sstables[SSTables].
+Flushing can be triggered in several ways:
-Memtables may be stored entirely on-heap or partially off-heap,
-depending on `memtable_allocation_type`.
+* The memory usage of the memtables exceeds the configured threshold (see xref:cassandra:managing/configuration/cass_yaml_file.adoc#memtable_cleanup_threshold[`memtable_cleanup_threshold`])
+* The `commit log` approaches its maximum size, and forces memtable flushes in order to allow commit log segments to be freed.
-== SSTables
+When a triggering event occurs, the memtable is put in a queue that is flushed to disk.
+Flushing writes the data to disk, in the memtable-sorted order.
+A partition index is also created on the disk that maps the tokens to a location on disk.
+
+The queue can be configured with either the xref:cassandra:managing/configuration/cass_yaml_file.adoc#memtable_heap_space[`memtable_heap_space`] or xref:cassandra:managing/configuration/cass_yaml_file.adoc#memtable_offheap_space[`memtable_offheap_space`] setting in the `cassandra.yaml` file.
+If the data to be flushed exceeds the `memtable_cleanup_threshold`, {cassandra} blocks writes until the next flush succeeds.
+You can manually flush a table using xref:managing:tools/nodetool/flush.adoc[`nodetool flush`] or `nodetool drain` (flushes memtables without listening for connections to other nodes).
+To reduce the commit log replay time, the recommended best practice is to flush the memtable before you restart the nodes.
+If a node stops working, replaying the commit log restores writes to the memtable that were there before it stopped.
-SSTables are the immutable data files that Cassandra uses for persisting
-data on disk.
+Data in the commit log is purged after its corresponding data in the memtable is flushed to an SSTable on disk.
-As SSTables are flushed to disk from `memtables` or are streamed from
-other nodes, Cassandra triggers compactions which combine multiple
-SSTables into one. Once the new SSTable has been written, the old
-SSTables can be removed.
+== SSTables
+
+https://cassandra.apache.org/_/glossary.html#sstable[SSTables] are the immutable data files that {cassandra} uses for persisting data on disk.
+SSTables are maintained per table.
+SSTables are immutable, and never written to again after the memtable is flushed.
+Thus, a partition is typically stored across multiple SSTable files, as data is added or modified.
-Each SSTable is comprised of multiple components stored in separate
-files:
+Each SSTable is comprised of multiple components stored in separate files:
`Data.db`::
- The actual data, i.e. the contents of rows.
+The actual data, i.e. the contents of rows.
+`Partitions.db`::
+The partition index file maps unique prefixes of decorated partition keys to data file locations, or, in the case of wide partitions indexed in the row index file, to locations in the row index file.
+`Rows.db`::
+The row index file only contains entries for partitions that contain more than one row and are bigger than one index block.
+For all such partitions, it stores a copy of the partition key, a partition header, and an index of row block separators, which map each row key into the first block where any content with equal or higher row key can be found.
`Index.db`::
- An index from partition keys to positions in the `Data.db` file. For
- wide partitions, this may also include an index to rows within a
- partition.
+An index from partition keys to positions in the `Data.db` file.
+For wide partitions, this may also include an index to rows within a partition.
`Summary.db`::
- A sampling of (by default) every 128th entry in the `Index.db` file.
+A sampling of (by default) every 128th entry in the `Index.db` file.
`Filter.db`::
- A Bloom Filter of the partition keys in the SSTable.
+A Bloom Filter of the partition keys in the SSTable.
`CompressionInfo.db`::
- Metadata about the offsets and lengths of compression chunks in the
- `Data.db` file.
+Metadata about the offsets and lengths of compression chunks in the `Data.db` file.
`Statistics.db`::
- Stores metadata about the SSTable, including information about
- timestamps, tombstones, clustering keys, compaction, repair,
- compression, TTLs, and more.
+Stores metadata about the SSTable, including information about timestamps, tombstones, clustering keys, compaction, repair, compression, TTLs, and more.
`Digest.crc32`::
- A CRC-32 digest of the `Data.db` file.
+A CRC-32 digest of the `Data.db` file.
`TOC.txt`::
- A plain text list of the component files for the SSTable.
+A plain text list of the component files for the SSTable.
+`SAI*.db`::
+Index information for Storage-Attached indexes.
+Only present if SAI is enabled for the table.
+
+[NOTE]
+====
+Note that the `Index.db` file type is replaced by `Partitions.db` and `Rows.db`.
+This change is a consequence of the inclusion of Big Trie indexes in Cassandra (https://cwiki.apache.org/confluence/display/CASSANDRA/CEP-25%3A+Trie-indexed+SSTable+format[CEP-25]).
+====
-Within the `Data.db` file, rows are organized by partition. These
-partitions are sorted in token order (i.e. by a hash of the partition
-key when the default partitioner, `Murmur3Partition`, is used). Within a
-partition, rows are stored in the order of their clustering keys.
+Within the `Data.db` file, rows are organized by partition.
+These partitions are sorted in token order (i.e. by a hash of the partition key when the default partitioner, `Murmur3Partition`, is used).
+Within a partition, rows are stored in the order of their clustering keys.
SSTables can be optionally compressed using block-based compression.
+As SSTables are flushed to disk from `memtables` or are streamed from other nodes, {cassandra} triggers compactions which combine multiple SSTables into one.
+Once the new SSTable has been written, the old SSTables can be removed.
+
== SSTable Versions
-This section was created using the following
-https://gist.github.com/shyamsalimkumar/49a61e5bc6f403d20c55[gist] which
-utilized this original
-http://www.bajb.net/2013/03/cassandra-sstable-format-version-numbers/[source].
+From (https://github.com/apache/cassandra/blob/cassandra-5.0/src/java/org/apache/cassandra/io/sstable/format/big/BigFormat.java#L338)[BigFormat#BigVersion].
The version numbers, to date are:
@@ -208,6 +214,37 @@ persisted
** store rows natively
* mb (3.0.7, 3.7): commit log lower bound included
* mc (3.0.8, 3.9): commit log intervals included
+* md (3.0.18, 3.11.4): corrected sstable min/max clustering
+* me (3.0.25, 3.11.11): added hostId of the node from which the sstable originated
+
+=== Version 4
+
+* na (4.0-rc1): uncompressed chunks, pending repair session, isTransient, checksummed sstable metadata file, new Bloomfilter format
+* nb (4.0.0): originating host id
+
+=== Version 5
+
+* oa (5.0): improved min/max, partition level deletion presence marker, key range (CASSANDRA-18134)
+** Long deletionTime to prevent TTL overflow
+** token space coverage
+
+== Trie-indexed Based SSTable Versions (BTI)
+
+Cassandra 5.0 introduced new SSTable formats BTI for Trie-indexed SSTables.
+To use the BTI formats configure it `cassandra.yaml` like
+
+```
+sstable:
+ selected_format: bti
+```
+
+Versions come from (https://github.com/apache/cassandra/blob/cassandra-5.0/src/java/org/apache/cassandra/io/sstable/format/bti/BtiFormat.java#L287)[BtiFormat#BtiVersion].
+
+For implementation docs see (https://github.com/apache/cassandra/blob/cassandra-5.0/src/java/org/apache/cassandra/io/sstable/format/bti/BtiFormat.md)[BtiFormat.md].
+
+=== Version 5
+
+* da (5.0): initial version of the BIT format
=== Example Code
diff --git a/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/developing/cql/indexing/sai/_user-defined-type-match.adoc b/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/developing/cql/indexing/sai/_user-defined-type-match.adoc
index 21946ed64b..1f183c8c69 100644
--- a/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/developing/cql/indexing/sai/_user-defined-type-match.adoc
+++ b/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/developing/cql/indexing/sai/_user-defined-type-match.adoc
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
= User-defined type
-SAI can index either a single field of a user-defined type (UDT) or a list of UDTs.
+SAI can index either a user-defined type (UDT) or a list of UDTs.
This example shows how to index a list of UDTs.
This example uses the following user-defined type (UDT), table and index:
diff --git a/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/developing/cql/indexing/sai/sai-query.adoc b/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/developing/cql/indexing/sai/sai-query.adoc
index 176bc49379..1868d1fec9 100644
--- a/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/developing/cql/indexing/sai/sai-query.adoc
+++ b/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/developing/cql/indexing/sai/sai-query.adoc
@@ -4,6 +4,8 @@
The xref:cassandra:getting-started/sai-quickstart.adoc[SAI quickstart] focuses only on defining multiple indexes based on non-primary key columns (a very useful feature).
Let's explore other options using some examples of how you can run queries on tables that have differently defined SAI indexes.
+include::developing:partial$sai/sai-only-select.adoc[]
+
// IS THERE AN EXAMPLE OF
// WITH OPTIONS = {'case_sensitive': false, 'normalize': true };
// case_sensitive Ignore case in matching string values.
diff --git a/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/managing/operating/compaction/index.adoc b/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/managing/operating/compaction/index.adoc
index 250583f572..e00ba97e7d 100644
--- a/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/managing/operating/compaction/index.adoc
+++ b/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/managing/operating/compaction/index.adoc
@@ -1,336 +1,9 @@
= Compaction
-== Strategies
-
-Picking the right compaction strategy for your workload will ensure the
-best performance for both querying and for compaction itself.
-
-xref:cassandra:managing/operating/compaction/stcs.adoc[`Size Tiered Compaction Strategy (STCS)`]::
- The default compaction strategy. Useful as a fallback when other
- strategies don't fit the workload. Most useful for non pure time
- series workloads with spinning disks, or when the I/O from `LCS`
- is too high.
-xref:cassandra:managing/operating/compaction/lcs.adoc[`Leveled Compaction Strategy (LCS)`]::
- Leveled Compaction Strategy (LCS) is optimized for read heavy
- workloads, or workloads with lots of updates and deletes. It is not a
- good choice for immutable time series data.
-xref:cassandra:managing/operating/compaction/twcs.adoc[`Time Window Compaction Strategy (TWCS)`]::
- Time Window Compaction Strategy is designed for TTL'ed, mostly
- immutable time series data.
-
-== Types of compaction
-
-The concept of compaction is used for different kinds of operations in
-Cassandra, the common thing about these operations is that it takes one
-or more SSTables and output new SSTables. The types of compactions are:
-
-Minor compaction::
- triggered automatically in Cassandra.
-Major compaction::
- a user executes a compaction over all SSTables on the node.
-User defined compaction::
- a user triggers a compaction on a given set of SSTables.
-Scrub::
- try to fix any broken SSTables. This can actually remove valid data if
- that data is corrupted, if that happens you will need to run a full
- repair on the node.
-UpgradeSSTables::
- upgrade SSTables to the latest version. Run this after upgrading to a
- new major version.
-Cleanup::
- remove any ranges this node does not own anymore, typically triggered
- on neighbouring nodes after a node has been bootstrapped since that
- node will take ownership of some ranges from those nodes.
-Secondary index rebuild::
- rebuild the secondary indexes on the node.
-Anticompaction::
- after repair the ranges that were actually repaired are split out of
- the SSTables that existed when repair started.
-Sub range compaction::
- It is possible to only compact a given sub range - this could be
- useful if you know a token that has been misbehaving - either
- gathering many updates or many deletes.
- (`nodetool compact -st x -et y`) will pick all SSTables containing the
- range between x and y and issue a compaction for those SSTables. For
- STCS this will most likely include all SSTables but with LCS it can
- issue the compaction for a subset of the SSTables. With LCS the
- resulting sstable will end up in L0.
-
-== When is a minor compaction triggered?
-
-* When an sstable is added to the node through flushing/streaming
-* When autocompaction is enabled after being disabled (`nodetool enableautocompaction`)
-* When compaction adds new SSTables
-* A check for new minor compactions every 5 minutes
-
-== Merging SSTables
-
-Compaction is about merging SSTables, since partitions in SSTables are
-sorted based on the hash of the partition key it is possible to
-efficiently merge separate SSTables. Content of each partition is also
-sorted so each partition can be merged efficiently.
-
-== Tombstones and Garbage Collection (GC) Grace
-
-=== Why Tombstones
-
-When a delete request is received by Cassandra it does not actually
-remove the data from the underlying store. Instead it writes a special
-piece of data known as a tombstone. The Tombstone represents the delete
-and causes all values which occurred before the tombstone to not appear
-in queries to the database. This approach is used instead of removing
-values because of the distributed nature of Cassandra.
-
-=== Deletes without tombstones
-
-Imagine a three node cluster which has the value [A] replicated to every
-node.:
-
-[source,none]
-----
-[A], [A], [A]
-----
-
-If one of the nodes fails and and our delete operation only removes
-existing values we can end up with a cluster that looks like:
-
-[source,none]
-----
-[], [], [A]
-----
-
-Then a repair operation would replace the value of [A] back onto the two
-nodes which are missing the value.:
-
-[source,none]
-----
-[A], [A], [A]
-----
-
-This would cause our data to be resurrected even though it had been
-deleted.
-
-=== Deletes with Tombstones
-
-Starting again with a three node cluster which has the value [A]
-replicated to every node.:
-
-[source,none]
-----
-[A], [A], [A]
-----
-
-If instead of removing data we add a tombstone record, our single node
-failure situation will look like this.:
-
-[source,none]
-----
-[A, Tombstone[A]], [A, Tombstone[A]], [A]
-----
-
-Now when we issue a repair the Tombstone will be copied to the replica,
-rather than the deleted data being resurrected.:
-
-[source,none]
-----
-[A, Tombstone[A]], [A, Tombstone[A]], [A, Tombstone[A]]
-----
-
-Our repair operation will correctly put the state of the system to what
-we expect with the record [A] marked as deleted on all nodes. This does
-mean we will end up accruing Tombstones which will permanently
-accumulate disk space. To avoid keeping tombstones forever we have a
-parameter known as `gc_grace_seconds` for every table in Cassandra.
-
-=== The gc_grace_seconds parameter and Tombstone Removal
-
-The table level `gc_grace_seconds` parameter controls how long Cassandra
-will retain tombstones through compaction events before finally removing
-them. This duration should directly reflect the amount of time a user
-expects to allow before recovering a failed node. After
-`gc_grace_seconds` has expired the tombstone may be removed (meaning
-there will no longer be any record that a certain piece of data was
-deleted), but as a tombstone can live in one sstable and the data it
-covers in another, a compaction must also include both sstable for a
-tombstone to be removed. More precisely, to be able to drop an actual
-tombstone the following needs to be true;
-
-* The tombstone must be older than `gc_grace_seconds`
-* If partition X contains the tombstone, the sstable containing the
-partition plus all SSTables containing data older than the tombstone
-containing X must be included in the same compaction. We don't need to
-care if the partition is in an sstable if we can guarantee that all data
-in that sstable is newer than the tombstone. If the tombstone is older
-than the data it cannot shadow that data.
-* If the option `only_purge_repaired_tombstones` is enabled, tombstones
-are only removed if the data has also been repaired.
-
-If a node remains down or disconnected for longer than
-`gc_grace_seconds` it's deleted data will be repaired back to the other
-nodes and re-appear in the cluster. This is basically the same as in the
-"Deletes without Tombstones" section. Note that tombstones will not be
-removed until a compaction event even if `gc_grace_seconds` has elapsed.
-
-The default value for `gc_grace_seconds` is 864000 which is equivalent
-to 10 days. This can be set when creating or altering a table using
-`WITH gc_grace_seconds`.
-
-== TTL
-
-Data in Cassandra can have an additional property called time to live -
-this is used to automatically drop data that has expired once the time
-is reached. Once the TTL has expired the data is converted to a
-tombstone which stays around for at least `gc_grace_seconds`. Note that
-if you mix data with TTL and data without TTL (or just different length
-of the TTL) Cassandra will have a hard time dropping the tombstones
-created since the partition might span many SSTables and not all are
-compacted at once.
-
-== Fully expired SSTables
-
-If an SSTable contains only tombstones and it is guaranteed that
-SSTable is not shadowing data in any other SSTable, then the compaction can drop
-that SSTable. If you see SSTables with only tombstones (note that TTL-ed
-data is considered tombstones once the time-to-live has expired), but it
-is not being dropped by compaction, it is likely that other SSTables
-contain older data. There is a tool called `sstableexpiredblockers` that
-will list which SSTables are droppable and which are blocking them from
-being dropped. With `TimeWindowCompactionStrategy` it
-is possible to remove the guarantee (not check for shadowing data) by
-enabling `unsafe_aggressive_sstable_expiration`.
-
-== Repaired/unrepaired data
-
-With incremental repairs Cassandra must keep track of what data is
-repaired and what data is unrepaired. With anticompaction repaired data
-is split out into repaired and unrepaired SSTables. To avoid mixing up
-the data again separate compaction strategy instances are run on the two
-sets of data, each instance only knowing about either the repaired or
-the unrepaired SSTables. This means that if you only run incremental
-repair once and then never again, you might have very old data in the
-repaired SSTables that block compaction from dropping tombstones in the
-unrepaired (probably newer) SSTables.
-
-== Data directories
-
-Since tombstones and data can live in different SSTables it is important
-to realize that losing an sstable might lead to data becoming live again
-- the most common way of losing SSTables is to have a hard drive break
-down. To avoid making data live tombstones and actual data are always in
-the same data directory. This way, if a disk is lost, all versions of a
-partition are lost and no data can get undeleted. To achieve this a
-compaction strategy instance per data directory is run in addition to
-the compaction strategy instances containing repaired/unrepaired data,
-this means that if you have 4 data directories there will be 8
-compaction strategy instances running. This has a few more benefits than
-just avoiding data getting undeleted:
-
-* It is possible to run more compactions in parallel - leveled
-compaction will have several totally separate levelings and each one can
-run compactions independently from the others.
-* Users can backup and restore a single data directory.
-* Note though that currently all data directories are considered equal,
-so if you have a tiny disk and a big disk backing two data directories,
-the big one will be limited the by the small one. One work around to
-this is to create more data directories backed by the big disk.
-
-== Single sstable tombstone compaction
-
-When an sstable is written a histogram with the tombstone expiry times
-is created and this is used to try to find SSTables with very many
-tombstones and run single sstable compaction on that sstable in hope of
-being able to drop tombstones in that sstable. Before starting this it
-is also checked how likely it is that any tombstones will actually will
-be able to be dropped how much this sstable overlaps with other
-SSTables. To avoid most of these checks the compaction option
-`unchecked_tombstone_compaction` can be enabled.
-
-[[compaction-options]]
-== Common options
-
-There is a number of common options for all the compaction strategies;
-
-`enabled` (default: true)::
- Whether minor compactions should run. Note that you can have
- 'enabled': true as a compaction option and then do 'nodetool
- enableautocompaction' to start running compactions.
-`tombstone_threshold` (default: 0.2)::
- How much of the sstable should be tombstones for us to consider doing
- a single sstable compaction of that sstable.
-`tombstone_compaction_interval` (default: 86400s (1 day))::
- Since it might not be possible to drop any tombstones when doing a
- single sstable compaction we need to make sure that one sstable is not
- constantly getting recompacted - this option states how often we
- should try for a given sstable.
-`log_all` (default: false)::
- New detailed compaction logging, see
- `below <detailed-compaction-logging>`.
-`unchecked_tombstone_compaction` (default: false)::
- The single sstable compaction has quite strict checks for whether it
- should be started, this option disables those checks and for some
- usecases this might be needed. Note that this does not change anything
- for the actual compaction, tombstones are only dropped if it is safe
- to do so - it might just rewrite an sstable without being able to drop
- any tombstones.
-`only_purge_repaired_tombstone` (default: false)::
- Option to enable the extra safety of making sure that tombstones are
- only dropped if the data has been repaired.
-`min_threshold` (default: 4)::
- Lower limit of number of SSTables before a compaction is triggered.
- Not used for `LeveledCompactionStrategy`.
-`max_threshold` (default: 32)::
- Upper limit of number of SSTables before a compaction is triggered.
- Not used for `LeveledCompactionStrategy`.
-
-Further, see the section on each strategy for specific additional
-options.
-
-== Compaction nodetool commands
-
-The `nodetool <nodetool>` utility provides a number of commands related
-to compaction:
-
-`enableautocompaction`::
- Enable compaction.
-`disableautocompaction`::
- Disable compaction.
-`setcompactionthroughput`::
- How fast compaction should run at most - defaults to 64MiB/s.
-`compactionstats`::
- Statistics about current and pending compactions.
-`compactionhistory`::
- List details about the last compactions.
-`setcompactionthreshold`::
- Set the min/max sstable count for when to trigger compaction, defaults
- to 4/32.
-
-== Switching the compaction strategy and options using JMX
-
-It is possible to switch compaction strategies and its options on just a
-single node using JMX, this is a great way to experiment with settings
-without affecting the whole cluster. The mbean is:
-
-[source,none]
-----
-org.apache.cassandra.db:type=ColumnFamilies,keyspace=<keyspace_name>,columnfamily=<table_name>
-----
-
-and the attribute to change is `CompactionParameters` or
-`CompactionParametersJson` if you use jconsole or jmc. The syntax for
-the json version is the same as you would use in an
-`ALTER TABLE <alter-table-statement>` statement -for example:
-
-[source,none]
-----
-{ 'class': 'LeveledCompactionStrategy', 'sstable_size_in_mb': 123, 'fanout_size': 10}
-----
-
-The setting is kept until someone executes an
-`ALTER TABLE <alter-table-statement>` that touches the compaction
-settings or restarts the node.
-
-[[detailed-compaction-logging]]
-== More detailed compaction logging
-
-Enable with the compaction option `log_all` and a more detailed
-compaction log file will be produced in your log directory.
+* xref:managing/operating/compaction/overview.adoc[Compaction overview]
+** xref:managing/operating/compaction/tombstones.adoc[Tombstones]
+** Compaction strategies:
+*** xref:managing/operating/compaction/ucs.adoc[Unified Compaction Strategy (UCS)]
+*** xref:managing/operating/compaction/stcs.adoc[Size-Tiered Compaction Strategy (STCS)]
+*** xref:managing/operating/compaction/lcs.adoc[Leveled Compaction Strategy (LCS)]
+*** xref:managing/operating/compaction/twcs.adoc[Time Window Compaction Strategy (TWCS)]
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/managing/operating/compaction/lcs.adoc b/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/managing/operating/compaction/lcs.adoc
index 5b0adb8b49..43f2e944bb 100644
--- a/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/managing/operating/compaction/lcs.adoc
+++ b/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/managing/operating/compaction/lcs.adoc
@@ -1,81 +1,95 @@
-= Leveled Compaction Strategy
+= Leveled Compaction Strategy (LCS)
[[lcs]]
-The idea of `LeveledCompactionStrategy` (LCS) is that all sstables are
-put into different levels where we guarantee that no overlapping
-sstables are in the same level. By overlapping we mean that the
-first/last token of a single sstable are never overlapping with other
-sstables. This means that for a SELECT we will only have to look for the
-partition key in a single sstable per level. Each level is 10x the size
-of the previous one and each sstable is 160MB by default. L0 is where
-sstables are streamed/flushed - no overlap guarantees are given here.
-
-When picking compaction candidates we have to make sure that the
-compaction does not create overlap in the target level. This is done by
-always including all overlapping sstables in the next level. For example
-if we select an sstable in L3, we need to guarantee that we pick all
-overlapping sstables in L4 and make sure that no currently ongoing
-compactions will create overlap if we start that compaction. We can
-start many parallel compactions in a level if we guarantee that we wont
-create overlap. For L0 -> L1 compactions we almost always need to
-include all L1 sstables since most L0 sstables cover the full range. We
-also can't compact all L0 sstables with all L1 sstables in a single
-compaction since that can use too much memory.
-
-When deciding which level to compact LCS checks the higher levels first
-(with LCS, a "higher" level is one with a higher number, L0 being the
-lowest one) and if the level is behind a compaction will be started in
-that level.
-
-== Major compaction
-
-It is possible to do a major compaction with LCS - it will currently
-start by filling out L1 and then once L1 is full, it continues with L2
-etc. This is sub optimal and will change to create all the sstables in a
-high level instead, CASSANDRA-11817.
-== Bootstrapping
+include::cassandra:partial$ucs-recommend.adoc[]
+
+The `LeveledCompactionStrategy (LCS)` is recommended for read-heavy workloads, although UCS is the best recommendation for all workloads today.
+It alleviates some of the read operation issues with STCS, while providing reasonable write operations.
+This strategy works with a series of levels, where each level contains a set of SSTables.
+When data in memtables is flushed, SSTables are written in the first level (L0), where SSTables are not guaranteed to be non-overlapping.
+LCS compaction merges these first SSTables with larger SSTables in level L1.
+Each level is by default 10x the size of the previous one.
+Once an SSTable is written to L1 or higher, the SSTable is guaranteed to be non-overlapping with other SSTables in the same level.
+If a read operation needs to access a row, it will only need to look at one SSTable per level.
-During bootstrap sstables are streamed from other nodes. The level of
-the remote sstable is kept to avoid many compactions after the bootstrap
-is done. During bootstrap the new node also takes writes while it is
-streaming the data from a remote node - these writes are flushed to L0
-like all other writes and to avoid those sstables blocking the remote
-sstables from going to the correct level, we only do STCS in L0 until
-the bootstrap is done.
+To accomplish compaction, all overlapping SSTables are merged into a new SSTable in the next level.
+For L0 -> L1 compactions, we almost always need to include all L1 SSTables since most L0 SSTables cover the full range of partitions.
+LCS compacts SSTables from one level to the next, writing partitions to fit a defined SSTable size.
+In addition, each level has a prescribed size, so that compaction will be triggered when a level reaches its size limit.
+Creating new SSTables in one level can trigger compaction in the next level, and so on, until all levels have been compacted based on the settings.
-== STCS in L0
+There is a failsafe if too many SSTables reads are being done in the L0 level.
+An STCS compaction will be triggered in L0 if there are more than 32 SSTables in L0.
+This compaction quickly merges SSTables out of L0, and into L1, where they will be compacted to non-overlapping SSTables.
-If LCS gets very many L0 sstables reads are going to hit all (or most)
-of the L0 sstables since they are likely to be overlapping. To more
-quickly remedy this LCS does STCS compactions in L0 if there are more
-than 32 sstables there. This should improve read performance more
-quickly compared to letting LCS do its L0 -> L1 compactions. If you keep
-getting too many sstables in L0 it is likely that LCS is not the best
-fit for your workload and STCS could work out better.
+LCS is not as disk hungry as STCS, needing only approximately 10% of disk to execute, but it is more IO and CPU intensive.
+For ongoing minor compactions in a read-heavy workload, the amount of compaction is reasonable.
+It is not a good choice for write-heavy workloads, though, because it will cause a lot of disk IO and CPU usage.
+Major compactions are not recommended for LCS.
+
+== Bootstrapping
+
+During bootstrapping, SSTables are streamed from other nodes.
+Because many SSTables will be both flushed from the new writes to memtables, as well as streaming from a remote note, the new node will have many SSTables in L0.
+To avoid a collision of the flushing and streaming SSTables, only STCS in L0 is executed until the bootstrapping is complete.
== Starved sstables
-If a node ends up with a leveling where there are a few very high level
-sstables that are not getting compacted they might make it impossible
-for lower levels to drop tombstones etc. For example, if there are
-sstables in L6 but there is only enough data to actually get a L4 on the
-node the left over sstables in L6 will get starved and not compacted.
-This can happen if a user changes sstable_size_in_mb from 5MB to 160MB
-for example. To avoid this LCS tries to include those starved high level
-sstables in other compactions if there has been 25 compaction rounds
-where the highest level has not been involved.
+If the leveling is not optimal, LCS can end up with starved sstables.
+High level SSTables can be stranded and not compacted, because SSTables in lower levels are not getting merged and compacted.
+For example, this situation can make it impossible for lower levels to drop tombstones.
+If these starved SSTables are not resolved within a defined number of compaction rounds, they will be included in other compactions.
+This situation generally occurs if a user lowers the `sstable_size` setting.
+
+include::cassandra:partial$default-compaction-strategy.adoc[]
[[lcs_options]]
== LCS options
-`sstable_size_in_mb` (default: 160MB)::
- The target compressed (if using compression) sstable size - the
- sstables can end up being larger if there are very large partitions on
- the node.
-`fanout_size` (default: 10)::
- The target size of levels increases by this fanout_size multiplier.
- You can reduce the space amplification by tuning this option.
+[cols="1,2"]
+|===
+| Subproperty | Description
+
+| enabled
+| Enables background compaction.
+Default value: true
+// See Enabling and disabling background compaction.
+
+| tombstone_compaction_interval
+| The minimum number of seconds after which an SSTable is created before {cassandra} considers the SSTable for tombstone compaction.
+An SSTable is eligible for tombstone compaction if the table exceeds the `tombstone_threshold` ratio.
+Default value: 86400
+
+| tombstone_threshold
+| The ratio of garbage-collectable tombstones to all contained columns.
+If the ratio exceeds this limit, {cassandra} starts compaction on that table alone, to purge the tombstones.
+Default value: 0.2
+
+| unchecked_tombstone_compaction
+| If set to `true`, allows {cassandra} to run tombstone compaction without pre-checking which tables are eligible for this operation.
+Even without this pre-check, {cassandra} checks an SSTable to make sure it is safe to drop tombstones.
+Default value: false
+
+| log_all
+| Activates advanced logging for the entire cluster.
+Default value: false
+
+| sstable_size_in_mb
+|The target size for SSTables.
+Although SSTable sizes should be less or equal to sstable_size_in_mb, it is possible that compaction could produce a larger SSTable during compaction.
+This occurs when data for a given partition key is exceptionally large.
+The {cassandra} database does not split the data into two SSTables.
+Default: 160
+
+| fanout_size
+| The target size of levels increases by this `fanout_size` multiplier.
+You can reduce the space amplification by tuning this option.
+Default: 10
+
+| single_sstable_uplevel
+| ???
+Default: true
+|===
-LCS also support the `cassandra.disable_stcs_in_l0` startup option
-(`-Dcassandra.disable_stcs_in_l0=true`) to avoid doing STCS in L0.
+LCS also supports a startup option, `-Dcassandra.disable_stcs_in_l0=true` which disables STCS in L0.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/managing/operating/compaction/overview.adoc b/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/managing/operating/compaction/overview.adoc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..3fdbb6d5a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/managing/operating/compaction/overview.adoc
@@ -0,0 +1,235 @@
+= Compaction overview
+
+== What is compaction?
+
+Data in {cassandra} is created in xref:cassandra:architecture/storage-engine.adoc#memtables[memtables].
+Once a memory threshold is reached, to free up memory again, the data is written to an xref:cassandra:architecture/storage-engine.adoc#SSTables[SSTable], an https://cassandra.apache.org/_/glossary.html#immutable[immutable] file residing on disk.
+
+Because SSTables are immutable, when data is updated or deleted, the old data is not overwritten with inserts or updates, or removed from the SSTable.
+Instead, a new SSTable is created with the updated data with a new timestamp, and the old SSTable is marked for deletion.
+The piece of deleted data is known as a https://cassandra.apache.org/_/glossary.html#tombstone[tombstone].
+
+Over time, Cassandra may write many versions of a row in different SSTables.
+Each version may have a unique set of columns stored with a different timestamp.
+As SSTables accumulate, the distribution of data can require accessing more and more SSTables to retrieve a complete row.
+
+To keep the database healthy, Cassandra periodically merges SSTables and discards old data.
+This process is called https://cassandra.apache.org/_/glossary.html#compaction[compaction].
+
+== Why must compaction be run?
+
+Since SSTables are consulted during read operations, it is important to keep the number of SSTables small.
+Write operations will cause the number of SSTables to grow, so compaction is necessary.
+Besides the issue of tombstones, data is deleted for other reasons, too, such as Time-To-Live (TTL) expiration of some data.
+Deleting, updating, or expiring data are all valid triggers for compaction.
+
+== What does compaction accomplish?
+
+Two important factors accomplished by compaction are performance improvement and disk space reclamation.
+If SSTables have duplicate data that must be read, read operations are slower.
+Once tombstones and duplicates are removed, read operations are faster.
+SSTables use disk space, and reducing the size of SSTables through compaction frees up disk space.
+
+== How does compaction work?
+
+Compaction works on a collection of SSTables.
+From these SSTables, compaction collects all versions of each unique row and assembles one complete row, using the most up-to-date version (by timestamp) of each of the row's columns.
+The merge process is performant, because rows are sorted by partition key within each SSTable, and the merge process does not use random I/O.
+The new versions of each row is written to a new SSTable.
+The old versions, along with any rows that are ready for deletion, are left in the old SSTables, and are deleted as soon as pending reads are completed.
+
+== Types of compaction
+
+The concept of compaction is used for different kinds of operations in
+{cassandra}, the common thing about these operations is that it takes one
+or more SSTables, merges, and outputs new SSTables. The types of compactions are:
+
+Minor compaction::
+A minor compaction triggered automatically in {cassandra} for several actions:
++
+* When an SSTable is added to the node through flushing
+* When autocompaction is enabled after being disabled (`nodetool enableautocompaction`)
+* When compaction adds new SSTables
+* A check for new minor compactions every 5 minutes
+Major compaction::
+A major compaction is triggered when a user executes a compaction over all SSTables on the node.
+User defined compaction::
+Similar to a major compaction, a user-defined compaction executes when a user triggers a compaction on a given set of SSTables.
+Scrub::
+A scrub triggers a compaction to try to fix any broken SSTables.
+This can actually remove valid data if that data is corrupted.
+If that happens you will need to run a full repair on the node.
+UpgradeSSTables::
+A compaction occurs when you upgrade SSTables to the latest version.
+Run this after upgrading to a new major version.
+Cleanup::
+Compaction executes to remove any ranges that a node no longer owns.
+This type of compaction is typically triggered on neighbouring nodes after a node has been bootstrapped, since the bootstrapping node will take ownership of some ranges from those nodes.
+Secondary index rebuild::
+A compaction is triggered if the secondary indexes are rebuilt on a node.
+Anticompaction::
+After repair, the ranges that were actually repaired are split out of the SSTables that existed when repair started. This type of compaction rewrites SSTables to accomplish this task.
+Sub range compaction::
+It is possible to only compact a given sub range - this action is useful if you know a token that has been misbehaving - either gathering many updates or many deletes.
+The command `nodetool compact -st x -et y` will pick all SSTables containing the range between x and y and issue a compaction for those SSTables.
+For Size Tiered Compaction Strategy, this will most likely include all SSTables, but with Leveled Compaction Strategy, it can issue the compaction for a subset of the SSTables.
+With LCS the resulting SSTable will end up in L0.
+
+== Strategies
+
+Different compaction strategies are available to optimize for different workloads.
+Picking the right compaction strategy for your workload will ensure the best performance for both querying and for compaction itself.
+
+xref:cassandra:managing/operating/compaction/ucs.adoc[`Unified Compaction Strategy (UCS)`]::
+UCS is a good choice for most workloads and is recommended for new workloads.
+This compaction strategy is designed to handle a wide variety of workloads.
+It is designed to be able to handle both immutable time-series data and workloads with lots of updates and deletes.
+It is also designed to be able to handle both spinning disks and SSDs.
+xref:cassandra:managing/operating/compaction/stcs.adoc[`Size Tiered Compaction Strategy (STCS)`]::
+STCS is the default compaction strategy, because it is useful as a fallback when other strategies don't fit the workload.
+Most useful for not strictly time-series workloads with spinning disks, or when the I/O from `LCS` is too high.
+xref:cassandra:managing/operating/compaction/lcs.adoc[`Leveled Compaction Strategy (LCS)`]::
+Leveled Compaction Strategy (LCS) is optimized for read heavy workloads, or workloads with lots of updates and deletes.
+It is not a good choice for immutable time-series data.
+xref:cassandra:managing/operating/compaction/twcs.adoc[`Time Window Compaction Strategy (TWCS)`]::
+Time Window Compaction Strategy is designed for TTL'ed, mostly immutable time-series data.
+
+include::tombstones.adoc[leveloffset=+1]
+
+== TTL
+
+Data in Cassandra can have an additional property called time to live -
+this is used to automatically drop data that has expired once the time
+is reached. Once the TTL has expired the data is converted to a
+tombstone which stays around for at least `gc_grace_seconds`. Note that
+if you mix data with TTL and data without TTL (or just different length
+of the TTL) Cassandra will have a hard time dropping the tombstones
+created since the partition might span many SSTables and not all are
+compacted at once.
+
+== Fully expired SSTables
+
+If an SSTable contains only tombstones and it is guaranteed that
+SSTable is not shadowing data in any other SSTable, then the compaction can drop
+that SSTable. If you see SSTables with only tombstones (note that TTL-ed
+data is considered tombstones once the time-to-live has expired), but it
+is not being dropped by compaction, it is likely that other SSTables
+contain older data. There is a tool called `sstableexpiredblockers` that
+will list which SSTables are droppable and which are blocking them from
+being dropped. With `TimeWindowCompactionStrategy` it
+is possible to remove the guarantee (not check for shadowing data) by
+enabling `unsafe_aggressive_sstable_expiration`.
+
+== Repaired/unrepaired data
+
+With incremental repairs Cassandra must keep track of what data is
+repaired and what data is unrepaired. With anticompaction repaired data
+is split out into repaired and unrepaired SSTables. To avoid mixing up
+the data again separate compaction strategy instances are run on the two
+sets of data, each instance only knowing about either the repaired or
+the unrepaired SSTables. This means that if you only run incremental
+repair once and then never again, you might have very old data in the
+repaired SSTables that block compaction from dropping tombstones in the
+unrepaired (probably newer) SSTables.
+
+== Data directories
+
+Since tombstones and data can live in different SSTables it is important
+to realize that losing an SSTable might lead to data becoming live again
+- the most common way of losing SSTables is to have a hard drive break
+down. To avoid making data live tombstones and actual data are always in
+the same data directory. This way, if a disk is lost, all versions of a
+partition are lost and no data can get undeleted. To achieve this a
+compaction strategy instance per data directory is run in addition to
+the compaction strategy instances containing repaired/unrepaired data,
+this means that if you have 4 data directories there will be 8
+compaction strategy instances running. This has a few more benefits than
+just avoiding data getting undeleted:
+
+* It is possible to run more compactions in parallel - leveled
+compaction will have several totally separate levelings and each one can
+run compactions independently from the others.
+* Users can backup and restore a single data directory.
+* Note though that currently all data directories are considered equal,
+so if you have a tiny disk and a big disk backing two data directories,
+the big one will be limited the by the small one. One work around to
+this is to create more data directories backed by the big disk.
+
+== Single SSTable tombstone compaction
+
+When an SSTable is written a histogram with the tombstone expiry times
+is created and this is used to try to find SSTables with very many
+tombstones and run single SSTable compaction on that SSTable in hope of
+being able to drop tombstones in that SSTable. Before starting this it
+is also checked how likely it is that any tombstones will actually will
+be able to be dropped how much this SSTable overlaps with other
+SSTables. To avoid most of these checks the compaction option
+`unchecked_tombstone_compaction` can be enabled.
+
+[[compaction-options]]
+== Common options
+
+There is a number of common options for all the compaction strategies;
+
+`enabled` (default: true)::
+Whether minor compactions should run. Note that you can have 'enabled': true as a compaction option and then do 'nodetool enableautocompaction' to start running compactions.
+`tombstone_threshold` (default: 0.2)::
+How much of the SSTable should be tombstones for us to consider doing a single SSTable compaction of that SSTable.
+`tombstone_compaction_interval` (default: 86400s (1 day))::
+Since it might not be possible to drop any tombstones when doing a single SSTable compaction we need to make sure that one SSTable is not constantly getting recompacted - this option states how often we should try for a given SSTable.
+`log_all` (default: false)::
+New detailed compaction logging, see `below <detailed-compaction-logging>`.
+`unchecked_tombstone_compaction` (default: false)::
+The single SSTable compaction has quite strict checks for whether it should be started, this option disables those checks and for some use cases this might be needed.
+Note that this does not change anything for the actual compaction, tombstones are only dropped if it is safe to do so - it might just rewrite an SSTable without being able to drop any tombstones.
+`only_purge_repaired_tombstone` (default: false)::
+Option to enable the extra safety of making sure that tombstones are only dropped if the data has been repaired.
+`min_threshold` (default: 4)::
+Lower limit of number of SSTables before a compaction is triggered.
+Not used for `LeveledCompactionStrategy`.
+`max_threshold` (default: 32)::
+Upper limit of number of SSTables before a compaction is triggered.
+Not used for `LeveledCompactionStrategy`.
+
+Further, see the section on each strategy for specific additional options.
+
+== Compaction nodetool commands
+
+The `nodetool <nodetool>` utility provides a number of commands related to compaction:
+
+`enableautocompaction`::
+Enable compaction.
+`disableautocompaction`::
+Disable compaction.
+`setcompactionthroughput`::
+How fast compaction should run at most - defaults to 64MiB/s.
+`compactionstats`::
+Statistics about current and pending compactions.
+`compactionhistory`::
+List details about the last compactions.
+`setcompactionthreshold`::
+Set the min/max SSTable count for when to trigger compaction, defaults to 4/32.
+
+== Switching the compaction strategy and options using JMX
+
+It is possible to switch compaction strategies and its options on just a single node using JMX, this is a great way to experiment with settings without affecting the whole cluster.
+The mbean is:
+
+[source,console]
+----
+org.apache.cassandra.db:type=ColumnFamilies,keyspace=<keyspace_name>,columnfamily=<table_name>
+----
+
+and the attribute to change is `CompactionParameters` or `CompactionParametersJson` if you use jconsole or jmc. For example, the syntax for the json version is the same as you would use in an `ALTER TABLE <alter-table-statement>` statement:
+
+[source,console]
+----
+{ 'class': 'LeveledCompactionStrategy', 'sstable_size_in_mb': 123, 'fanout_size': 10}
+----
+
+The setting is kept until someone executes an `ALTER TABLE <alter-table-statement>` that touches the compaction settings or restarts the node.
+
+[[detailed-compaction-logging]]
+== More detailed compaction logging
+
+Enable with the compaction option `log_all` and a more detailed compaction log file will be produced in your log directory.
diff --git a/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/managing/operating/compaction/stcs.adoc b/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/managing/operating/compaction/stcs.adoc
index 162d2fec5e..c31635ae0d 100644
--- a/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/managing/operating/compaction/stcs.adoc
+++ b/doc/modules/cassandra/pages/managing/operating/compaction/stcs.adoc
@@ -1,42 +1,96 @@
-= Size Tiered Compaction Strategy
+= Size Tiered Compaction Strategy (STCS)
[[stcs]]
-The basic idea of `SizeTieredCompactionStrategy` (STCS) is to merge
-sstables of approximately the same size. All sstables are put in
-different buckets depending on their size. An sstable is added to the
-bucket if size of the sstable is within `bucket_low` and `bucket_high`
-of the current average size of the sstables already in the bucket. This
-will create several buckets and the most interesting of those buckets
-will be compacted. The most interesting one is decided by figuring out
-which bucket's sstables takes the most reads.
-
-== Major compaction
-
-When running a major compaction with STCS you will end up with two
-sstables per data directory (one for repaired data and one for
-unrepaired data). There is also an option (-s) to do a major compaction
-that splits the output into several sstables. The sizes of the sstables
-are approximately 50%, 25%, 12.5%... of the total size.
+
+include::cassandra:partial$ucs-recommend.adoc[]
+
+The `SizeTieredCompactionStrategy (STCS)` is recommended for write-intensive workloads, and is the legacy recommended compaction strategy.
+It is the default compaction strategy if no other strategy is specified.
+
+STCS initiates compaction when {cassandra} has accumulated a set number (default: 4) of similar-sized SSTables.
+STCS merges these SSTables into one larger SSTable.
+As these larger SSTables accumulate, STCS merges them into even larger SSTables.
+At any given time, several SSTables of varying sizes are present.
+
+While STCS works well to compact a write-intensive workload, it makes reads slower because the merge-by-size process does not group data by rows.
+This fact makes it more likely that versions of a particular row may be spread over many SSTables.
+Also, STCS does not evict deleted data predictably, because its trigger for compaction is SSTable size.
+However, SSTables may not grow quickly enough to merge and evict old data regularly.
+
+Most STCS compactions are minor compactions, which merge a few SSTables into one.
+In contrast, when executing a major compaction with STCS, two SSTables per data directory, one for repaired data and one for unrepaired data, will exist during the compaction.
+As the largest SSTables grow in size, the amount of disk space needed for both the new and old SSTables simultaneously during STCS compaction can outstrip a typical amount of disk space on a node.
+This phenomenon is known as space amplification, the problem of growing SSTable size, and the issue of outgrowing a cluster's ability to do compaction.
+Major compactions are not recommended for STCS.
+
+STCS depends on the calculation of the average size of SSTables to determine which SSTables to merge.
+This process is called bucketing.
+The following options are used to calculate the bucket into which an SSTable will be grouped, based on that average size.
+The bucketing process groups SSTables based on their size differing from the average size by either 50% or 150% more than the average size.
+Another way to state this calculation is that the bucketing process groups SSTables with a size within [average-size × bucket_low] and [average-size × bucket_high].
+
+include::cassandra:partial$default-compaction-strategy.adoc[]
[[stcs_options]]
== STCS options
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